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GRAMMAR 

OP 

CHEMISTRY, 

WHEREIN 

THE PRINCIPLES OF THE SCIENCE ARE EXPLAINED JLNIi 
FAMILIARIZED BY A VARIETY OF 

EXAMPLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS, 

AND BY NUMEROUS 

USEFUL AND ENTERTAINING EXPERIMENTS 

TO WHICH ARE ADDED, 

INTERROGATORY EXERCISES; 

AND 

A GLOSSARY OP TERMS USED IK CHEMISTRY 
BY THE REV. D. BLAIR, 

AUTHOR OF THE GRAMMAR OF PHILOSOPHY, &C. ScC 



Corrected and Revised by 

BENJAMIN TUCKER, 

AUTHOR OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTQRY, &X-. 

mmm ™""" " 
FIFTH EDITION. 
Improved and adapted to the present state of the Scieitc e , 

PHILADELPHIA: 

PUBLISHED AND SOLD BY TOWAR AND HOGAX; 
No. 255, Market Street! 
1827. 



■:* ' 



EASTERN DISTRICT OF PENNSYLVANIA, to wit . 
••••••••• HE IT REMEMBERED, Tint on the eighteenth day 

* L S * °** Ja,,,,ar 5% '» tne forty-seventh jreiir of the Independence 
'• • of the United States of America, A. D. 1823. David Hogan 

••••••••• of the said district, hath deposited in this office the title of 

a book, the right whereof he claims as proprietor, in the words follow- 
ing, to wit : 

" A Grammar of Chemistry ; wherein the principles of the science are 
"explained and familiarized by a variety of Examples and Illua- 
"trations, and by numerous useful and entertaining Experiments. 
"To whietk are added. Interrogatory Exercises; and a Glossary of 
"Terms used in Chemistry. By the Rev. 1) Blair, author ot the 
"Grammar of Philosophy, &e. &c. Corrected and Revised by Ben- 
jamin Tucker, author of Ancient and Modern History, &c. Fourth 
" edition. Improved and adapted to the present state of the Science." 
In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, 
" An act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of 
maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies, 
during the times therein mentioned." And also to the act, entitled, 
"An ict supplementary to an act, entitled, ' An net for the encourage- 
ment of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to 
the authors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein 
mentioned,' and extending th- benefits thereof to the arts of designing, 
engraving, and etching historical i?id other prints." 

D. CALDWELL, 
Clerk of (he Eastern District of Pennsylvania, 



am 

W. T.. Shoemaker 
1 % '06 



EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE. 

Fig. 1. A is a pneumatic tub, K, K, a shelf on 
which the inverted glass jars B, G, F, are placed. C 
and E are glass retorts. (See also page 31.) 

Fig. 2. A is a cylindrical vessel of tin, thirteen 
inches high, and twenty-one in circumference, open at 
-7, so as to admit a lamp, with a round aperture in the 
top, three inches in diameter. B is a circular case,four 
inches high, formed of two pieces, of the same metal, 
which include a column of atmospheric air, one inch 
thick, at the top and on the sides. The lower part has 
an opening five inches in diameter, and in the middle 
of the upper part there is an aperture to receive the 
neck of an oil flask. C is a flask, from which proceeds 
the tube D, which enters the bottle E. 

In using this apparatus, the flask, containing the sub- 
ject of the operation must be placed on the cylindrical 
body A. The case B is then to be put over the flask, 
and the tube D, which enters a perforated cork, luted 
to it with a strip of paper, covered with a paste made 
of flour and water. The atmospheric air which the 
case B contains, is a bad conductor of heat; hence upon 
applying an Argand lamp to the bottom of the flask, 
the heat is accumulated round its sides, and thus pre- 
vented from flying off into the air. 

Fig. 3. A is the cylindrical vessel of tin, E the case 
containing the atmospheric air, and F an oil flask, on 
the neck of which, the head of an alembic, B, made of 
tin or copper, seven inches high, is placed; C the head 
of this vessel, thirteen inches long, enters an oil 
flask D. 

To use this apparatus,. the flask must be placed on 
the top of the cylindrical body A. The vessel con- 
taining the atmospheric air is then to be placed over 
the flask, and the head of the alembic fixed to its 
neck, G; the part over the top of the head of the 
alembic must be filled with cold water 



PREFACE 

TO THE FIRST AMERICAN EDITION. 



THE science of Chemistry has become so 
popular and fashionable a study, that to be 
wholly unacquainted with it, rather betrays 
a mortifying ignorance. It seems therefore 
highly proper, that its elementary principles 
should be brought into so narrow a compass, 
as to enable every person to become acquaint- 
ed with the general outlines of the Science, 
without intruding too much upon other avoca- 
tions; — and, in our Seminaries where a liberal 
English Education is taught, it is surely high 
time to add this interesting and useful study. 

Under the influence of these impressions, 
and also with a view to furnish a text book for 
such as wish to attend popular Lectures on 
Chemistry, the following little work has been 
revised; and the corrections and additions 
which have been made, are principally such, 
as could not with propriety be dispensed with. 

Although the general plan of the work, and 
the brevity studied by the author throughout 
the compilation, rendered it a most valuable 
elementary book, yet opinions had been occa- 



vi Freface to the First Edith- 

sionally advanced which were opposed to ex 
periment. In the production of hydrogen gas 
by a union of iron with water and sulphuric 
acid, the author differs from late writers on 
that subject, by asserting that the acid as well 
as the water is decomposed — In the formation 
of writing ink, he says, the green sulphate, 
instead of the red, unites to the gallic acid, to 
form a gallate of iron, or common ink — The 
ashes of sea weeds, instead of the saline mat- 
ter extracted from them, he calls kelp — 
These, with several other errors of a similar 
kind, which, although they were not of great 
magnitude, yet, as they were errors, it was 
necessary they should be corrected. 

From the support which has been lately 
given to the opinion, that heat is a property 
of matter, by Professor Davy, of the Royal 
Institution of Great Britain, and by Dr. 
Young, late Professor of Natural Philosophy. 
in the same Institution, I thought the inser- 
tion of that theory, as well as the more gene- 
rally received one, might not be improper; 
and have therefore added it. 

I have also added a description of Chrome, 
a metal which has been found in combination 
with iron, in great abundance, in the neigh- 
bourhood of Baltimore; and which, if it can 
be separated by a cheap process from the iroi 
with which it is combi ill be foin 



Preface to the. First Edition. xt 

furnish, in its combinations with the metallic 
oxides, the most beautiful and durable paints, 
In attending a first course of Lectures on 
Chemistry, new terms, however well defined 
by the Lecturer, will be but very imperfectly 
remembered; and when they are repeated by 
him without explanation, will very probably 
be wholly unintelligible. Thus it frequently 
happens, that the loss of a few words, which, 
if well understood, would have thrown light 
upon the subject, and given lis a high interest 
in it, by being unintelligible, obscures the 
lecture, and creates dissatisfaction. In order 
to remove in some measure this inconveni- 
ence, I have added to the Glossary a number 
of terms which had been omitted by the 
author; so that should a difficulty occur, it 
may immediately be removed by turning to 
the Glossary while the Lecturer is speaking. 

B, TUCKEE, 



PREFACE 

' the Present Edition, embracing the Notices formerly 
n of the two preceding Editions. 



EACH succeeding impression of this work 
has been carefully revised, and such corrections 
and improvements made as the advancement in 
chemical science rendered necessary. 

To the second edition I added several impor- 
tant facts; amongst which may be particularly 
noticed Professor Davy's interesting discove- 
ry of the means for preventing the disastrous 
effects of fire damp in mines ; {Singers' curious 
invention of a perpetuated motion, without the aid 
of a mechanical force; and the process for whi- 
tening linen by the aid of oxymuriatic acid. 

In the third edition I judged it expedient to 
give a more full and satisfactory explanation of 
the different species of attraction, as well as of 
simple and compound affinity ; and also to intro- 
the several doctrines which mark the pre- 
sent era of chemical science. But in order that 
the young student might not too implicitly re- 
these new theories, when these doctrines 
doubtful, J offered such objections as were 
sanctioned by chemists of acknowledged emi- 
nent 

In the present (Million such further facts and 
illustrations have been introduced, as were 



Preface to the Present Edition. ix 

found to be sanctioned by the latest and most 
eminent writers on the science. Some changes 
have also been made in the arrangement of the 
matter, in parts where it appeared to be suscep- 
tible of improvement. 

What however will probably render this edi- 
tion, as an elementary book for schools, supe- 
rior to those which have preceded it, is an en- 
largement and new arrangement of the inter- 
rogatory exercises, so as to embrace each 
subject separately. This plan, which has been 
suggested by experience in teaching, it is believ- 
ed will be found much easier, and more success- 
ful in exercising pupils, than the promiscuous 
one formerly adopted. 

The editor trusts the labour he has from time 
to time bestowed in preparing for the press the 
successive editions of this work, will evidence a 
becoming gratitude for the patronage which it 
has received ; and at the same time be promo- 
tive of diffusing a more general and correct 
knowledge of the science among the rising gene- 
ration. 

BENJAMIN TUCKER. 

Philadelphia, Feb. 1823. 



ADVERTISEMENT 

TO TIIE FIFTH AMERICAN EDITION". 

The present impression of this little work has re- 
ceived a careful revision, and such additions have been 
introduced as the limits prescribed to it would permit. 
Amongst these will be found a Table of Affinities from 
Thomson's Chemistry, which, it is believed, to the 
practical student will be a valuable acquisition. 

BENJAMIN TUCKER. 

Philadelphia, 1827. 



INDEX. 



General Principles, - Page 13 

Of Simple Substances, .... 19 

Light— Caloric, 19 

Oxygen, 30 

Hydrogen, 32 

Carbon, 40 

The Metals, 46 

Nitrogen, or Azote, - ■■ - - 68 

Phosphorus, 70 

Sulphur, 74 

Of Earths, 75 

Of the Alkalies, 83 

Of the Acids, 87 

Of Salts, 101 

Of Oxides, 106 

Of Combustion, 109 

Of Water, 118 

Of Mineral Waters, 120 

Of Vegetable Substances, - - - 121 

Of Animal Substances, - 124 

Of Fermentation, 126 

Table of Chemical Decompositions, - - 127 
Miscellaneous Experiments, illustrating the 

general principles of Chemistry, - - 133 
Questions and other Exercises on the foregoing 

Facts and Experiments, - - - 152 

Glossary of Terms used in Chemistry, - - 179 



EXTRACT. 

The science of chemistry, says W. Henry, unfolds 
sublime views of the beauty and harmony of the uni- 
verse, and develops a plan of vast extent and uninter- 
rupted order, only conceivable by perfect wisdom, and 
executed by unbounded power. By withdrawing the 
mirtd also from pursuits and amusements which excite 
the imagination, its investigations may tend to the im- 
provement of our intellectual and moral habits, to 
strengthen the faculty of patient and accurate thinking, 
and to substitute placid trains of feeling, for those 
which are too apt to be weakened by the contending 
^interest of man in society, or the imperfect government 
nf our own passions. 



A 
GRAMMAR OF CHEMISTRY. 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 

1. THE object of chemistry is to ascertain 
the ingredients of which substances are com- 
posed, to examine the nature of those ingre- 
dients, and the properties resulting from their 
combination or union. 

2. Substance, or body, denotes any exist- 
ing matter, whether solid or fluid. 

'ration. A stone is a solid body: water and air 
ire fluid bodies. 

3. All substances subjected to chemical in- 
vestigation, are considered either as simple or 
compound. 

4. Simple bodies are those which cannot be 
separated into others more simple: compound 
bodies are those w r hich are compounded or 
composed of simple bodies. 

'ration 1. When we set fire to a piece of wood 
or coal, light and heat are emitted, and the solid matter 
of the- wood is converted into water, a kind of air, and 
several other new products. Hence it is evident that 
..nd coal are compound bodies. 
2. Lead is a simple body; but common red-lead, used 
by painters, is compounded of lead and a certain part 
B 



1 I 

of the , .nul these may ! ed from 

a proper degree of the ap- 

which the air will be driven off in th< 
vapour, and the lead will remain in its 
nal si 

Man cannot create or annihilate any par- 
ticle of matter; but by the aid of chemistry 
he can render obvious to sense, that which 
latetit or hidden. 

'ration. In the burning* of a candle, both light 
and th f heat are furnished; but the cl 

can prove that it is not the candle altogether which 
materials, but, in a great measure, th< 

ig atmosphere, and not the whole of that atmos- 
phere, but one of its constituent portions. All the t 

s presented in the different kingdoms of nature, 
are more or less connected with the gr 
and air, aided by light and warmth, or tin 
• of heat 

6. The physical properties of ma 
distinguished from the chemic 

Phus, lead has divisib 

ic. not 
! as matter, for all natural .bodie 
same < 1, cs; but it is not the property of any 

m nature, by a union with another simple 
nee, to produce minium or red-lead. — 1 
an individ 

7. The liquid by which 

• 1, is called the solvent, or menstrui 
Solution is promoted by mechanical di- 
>y heat, a ion. 

ire is different 
from a 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 15 

s turbid or opaque: solutions are trans- 
parent. 

Illustration 1. A stone or an earth may be reduced 
to a powder, and ijsater, but the solid parti- 

cles will gradually ' om. This is a mixture. 

2. M hor is put into a glass of al- 

cohol, the camphor dissolves, and the fluid retains its 
transparency; the alcohol and camphor being blended 
together by a mutual attraction. This is a solution. 

10. There is a certain limited quantity 

which fluids will dissolve or take up by the 

power of attracfion; whatever part of "the solid 

body exceeds this limit, will fall to the bottom 

-solved. 

11\ This point or limit is called the point 
of saturation. • 

Illustration 1. If we gradually drop salt into* a glass 
of water, saturation is said to have taken place when 
the salt begins to Jail to the bottom, instead of being 
dissolved in the liquid. If the solution be drained off 
from these particles of salt, it is then called a saturated 
solution. 

2. There is also a point or limit, in certain cases, be- 
yond that oilsaturation, which is termed super-satura- 
tion; q£ which we have an instance in steel and plump 
bago. Both of these are compounds of iron and carbon. 
Black-lead, whith contains not an atom of lead, is iron 
saturated in the second degree with carbon. Steel, on 
the other hand, is iron united to the first point of satu- 
ration with the same principle, carbon* 

12. All the phenomena of chemistry arise 
from $he attractions and repulsions exerted 
between the particles of matter. 

The term attraction is employed to 
ver, or force, by which bodies 



1G GENERAL ! 

have a tendency to approach to each other, to 
enter into more or less intimate contact or 
union, and to remain in that Stat 

14. Different spopies of tjiis force have 
been observed, which" give rise to different 
effects, and operate according to different laws. 
A general distinction .may be stated between 
them, accordingly as they operate at greater 
or less distances; and as they affect the masses 

*or particjes of -matter. 

15. Attraction of gravitation, the most 
general in its agency, is exerted between the 
largest masses of matter, placed at sensible 
and often at immense distances. 

Illustration. A stone, unsupported in the air, falls to 
the ground by the attraction of gravitation. 

16. Attraction of cohesion, or aggregation, 
is exerted only between particles of the same 
kind of matter. It unites them so as to form 

ss or aggregate, the hardness of which is 
proportioned to the force with which this at- 
traction is exerted: but the properties of the 
mass ore always the same with those of the 
particles which compose it. 

n. Hardne ^ ductility. 

ependupon nodifications 

of this attraction of c 

17. When the at1 of eohesi' 

mite indi*rimi- 
nai form inc. n it 

regu - 



GENERAL PRINCIPLES. 17 

lar ligures. This is termed crystallization, 
and the regular figured masses are denominated 
crystals. 

■ ration. While gravitation is the source of all the 

le motions of the universe, contignnjus attraction 
gives origin to many important phenomena arising from 
the insensible motions of the particles of matter. Ex- 
erted between bodies of the same kind, it is the cause 
of the different forms in which they exist, and the reg- 
ular figures which many of them are capable of assum- 
ing: exerted between particles of a different kind, it is 
the source of all the combinations of matter, which 
constitute so important a part of the economy of nature. 
IS. Chemical attraction, or, as it is more 
generally termed, chemical affinity, is exert- 
ed between the particles of different kinds of 
matter; ami when it unites them, forms sub- 
stances which have qualities different from 
those of tne bodies that have been combined. 

rvation. This law of attraction is of the highest 
importance: it is from it that the properties of the great- 
unber of material bodies are derived. — Almost the 
whole of trie productions of nature are compounds, form- 
ed from the union of a few simple substances: and the nu- 
merous properties winch they possess, adapting them to 
so many purposes of utility, are derived from this source. 
19. When particles of different kinds are 
united, and'form a new substance, this is called 
composition, or synthesis: and when these are 
tgain separated, it is termed decomposition, 
or analysis. 

i 1. An instance of composition or S3*nthe- 

when muriatic acid is added to lime. The 

unite, and form what is termed z muri- 

lime. 

B2 



i> GENERAL PRINC 

the lime will b< I from the and 

f two kinds, simple and destructive.— 
The 

whei iticacid is< ikali b) 

the same qi 

-combined with it, and thus the original com- 
nd (muriate of lime) 

chemically, although we should obta 

from 

, endeavour to reproduce, by any new 

combination o! [tive fragrance 

of the flower. Hence destructivi 

20. When the decomposition of a body is 
effected by a single new substance, this is 
termed simple affinity: but when*' ft requires 
a body which is itself composed of two or 
more principles, neither of which could sepa- 
rately perform the decomposition, it is termed 
compound affinity. 

Illustration. If sulphuric acid be added to a solution 
of the acetate of lead, the sulphuric acid will combine 
with the lead, and will be prei hile the acetic 

acid will be set at liberty.— This is an instance of simple 
affinity. But if a solution of the sulphate of sodabe add- 
ed to the acetate of lead, the sulphuric acid»will combine-, 
with the lead, and the acetic acid with the socl 
will, by the decomposition of the two former substaiu 
form two new compounds.— This is termed compound 

affi 1 .-II 

21. Besides the species of attraction already 

ribed, there are also electric and magnetic 
on. 
Illustration. When amber or scaling wax are rubbed, 



OF SIMPLE SUBSTANCES. 19 

■ tract feathers, or other light bodies. — This is dec- 
trie af tract ion. The force by which the needle is deter- 
mined to the pole, is termed magnetic attraction, 

OF SIMPLE SUBSTANCES. 

2 2. Simple substances are such bodies as 
the powers of chemistry have hitherto been 
unable to decompose. 

Observation. The numb er of simple substanc es is con- 
stantly changing. Experiment has discovered, that se- 
veral substances formerlyjield as simple, are compound?. 

Among- the simple bodies are, 
Light — Caloric, or the matter of heat; 
Oxygen, or the acidifying principle; 
Hydrogen, or the basis of water; 
Carbon, or Diamond; and 
The Metals. 

24. Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulphur, 
the Earths, and Alkalies, cannot properly 
be reckoned as simple bodies. 

OF LIGHT— CALORIC. 

There are two opinions concerning the 
nature of. caloric, which have long divided 
philosophers, and which are still prevalent. 

. The first, that it is a distinct, but very 
subtile fluid, which pervades the pores of all 
bod ; 

27. The second, that caloric arises from the 
vibrations propagated through an elastic me- 
dium, which is diffused through all space, and 



OF C 

in which luminou power of 

ms, in the same manner 
rous ones produce vibratory motions 
in the 

ht, according to the first of- I 
. is considered asa distinct substa 
all part; 
projected with inconceivable velo- 
city from luminous bodies. 

The difference between light and heat, 
according to the second opinion, arises from 
the undulations constituting heat, being larger 
and stronger than those of li^ht. 

SO. The first of these opinions with respect 
to light and heat, is the most general. 

31. Meat is derived from the following 
sources, viz. the sun, combustion, mixture, 
friction, and percussion. 

Animal heat is that principle or power 

by which the body is kept warm, and by 

which living beings are enabled to communi- 

wnrmth to surrounding bod 

Caloric is produced by the discharge of 

an electric battery, or by the galvanic appa- 

; from the latter of which a more intense 

e of heat may be obtained than by any 

other means whatever. 

•/. An ingenious invention of perpetui 

inging of bells, produced by an elect r 

d by Deluc, and imp 

ption. The 
ek ctri' ral hundred small discs 



OF CALORIC. 21 

of zinc, and equal pieces of plain gilt Dutch paper, (i. e. 
paper covered with copper-foil,) about seven-tenths of 
an inch diameter. These are placed upon each other 
alternately, and enclosed in a glass tube. The upper 
side of the gilt paper being turned to one end of the 
tube, becomes the positive extremity of the column; 
and since the paper seems only to separate the binary 
groups of zinc and copper, the latter being in each of 
them en the other end of the tube, this becomes the 
negative extremity of the column. When the number 
of discs amount to 800 or 1000, the apparatus will at 
any time produce a perceptible effect upon the elec- 
trometer, without any preparation. Singers construct- 
ed an apparatus with two of these electric columns, 
which never ceased to ring for 14 months, except dur- 
ing its removal from one place to another. The columns 
were placed vertically, and enclosed in a glass receiver, 
having a bell fixed at the lower extremity of each, and 
a brass ball suspended between them by a fine thread 
of raw silk. This ball, from the attraction and repul- 
sion excited by the electricity of the columns, was kept 
in motion, so as to produce a perceptible sound from 
the bells. In Singers' description of his electric 
columns, he says, " There appears every reason to be- 
lieve that the action of a well-constructed column will 
be permanent. I have several that have been construct- 
ed nearly three years, and they are still as active as at 
first." 

34. Caloric, in the act of passing from one 
body to another, becomes perceptible to the 
senses. 

35. Caloric expands bodies in all directions. 
It is conspicuously diffused throughout na- 
ture. 

Illustration 1. Though caloric be the cause of li- 
quidity and the gaseous state, still bodies in a concrete 
contain much of this matter uncombined. This 



# 

OP ( 

ure of" 

■ 

produc 

«m in- 

arc ; and us it is probable that no substance 
can have its temperature i\ 
heat, so it must follow, that the p; 

are m \ tl contact.- meters 

and pyrometers ai 
tive degrees of heat by tb 

of expansion are determined by 
pence to a suitable scale. 

36. Heat is necessary to the fusion of ice, 
or any other solid body: but during the act of 
congelation, it is constantly e , and 
warmth is presented to surroun 

37. The same quantity of c 
keeps son' 

presents liqui; 

38. Calo cumulated in any 
body 

39. idency to cs- 
, when they are ra 

of iron made red-hot, soon ' 

under the head of imponderable sul 



OF CALORIC. 23 

because the nicest experiments have not prov- 
ed it to be possessed of weight 

41. It is conducted through different bodies 
with more or less facility. 

Illustration 1. When rods of iron, porcelain, and 
wood, of equal lengths and diameter, are exposed to the 
fire, the ends at a distance will convey the heat very 
differently, — the iron will become very hot, whilst the 
porcelain and wood will scarcely be heated at all. 

2. A purse containing* money, when held to the fire, 
scarcely becomes warm, while the money becomes 
so hot as not to be touched. Hence the facility with 
which bodies' are heated or cooled, is proportioned to 
their conducting- power; and from this circumstance they 
are termed good or bad conductors. The metals are 
the best conductors; stones are the next. On the con- 
trary, glass, wood, and charcoal, are bad conductors; 
also fur, silk, wool a^d cotton. 

3. Ice, wrapped in wool, fleecy-hosiery, down, or 
fine dry charcoal powder, thaws but slowly, even in an 
atmosphere of considerably higher temperature. 

4. Expansion and contraction often produce serious 
inconvenience, particularly in instruments for measur- 
ing time. Musical instruments should not have strings 
of different metals, for by any change of temperature 
in the atmosphere, they are apt to go out of tune. 

5. Brittle bodies, such as glass, being bad conductors 
of heat, when it is too suddenly applied to their surface, 
the expansion which takes place generally produces 
fracture. On this account, capsules, Florence flasks, 
and retorts of glass, to be used over lamps, or at the 
naked fire, should be as thin as possible, provided they 
be of sufficient strength to bear their contents. 

Fluids have the property of carrying 

• transporting caloric; in consequence of 

ich they acquire heat much more rapidly 



OF CALORIC. 

than solids, independent of any conducting 
power. 

! rat ion. Fluids necessarily contain more latent 
urn solids; but us the capacity of bodies for calo- 
ised, their conducting 1 power seems to be di- 
minished, as in the case of liquids and gases: these ap- 
such bad conductors of heat, that Count 
Rumford supposed this power was only communicated 
by interchange of heated particles. 

Experiment 1. Hot water,* on the surface of cold 
water, in a tube, remains long nearly at the same tem- 
perature; whereas, when disposed at the bottom, the 
reverse occurs. 

2. When a vessel of cold water is placed over a fire, 
the heat expands the water at the bottom of the vessel, 
and thereby renders it of less specific gravity: this por- 
tion of water therefore ascends to the top, while an- 
other of equal volume, being colder and consequently 
heavier, (bulk for bulk,) falls to tlfb bottom; and in this 
way tli ere is a constant circulation from the under to 
the upper part of the vessel. 

3. Ice placed at the surface of a vessel of hot water, 
will be melted in one eightieth part of the time required 
to fuse it at the bottom of the same vessel. This shows 
with what difficulty heat is communicated downwards, 
or by radiation, in liquids 

43. Water swells upon being frozen. This 
arises from two causes: First, from the ex- 
trication of the portiou of air which it holds 
in solution, and which freezing disengages, 
and forms those numerous cavities that are 
found in ice. Second, from the frozen parti- 
of water assuming a different arrange- 
ment, and therefore requiring more room. 

(ration. From this cause it is, that in severe 
frcsts the sudden concretion of the aqueous fluid will 



OF CALORIC. 2b 

split even the knotted oak, with incalculable force, ac- 
companied by loud explosion. 

Experiment 1. When water is poured over a block 
of Irish slate, set on edge, over night, it is found to Q£ 
readily split into layers by the freezing of the water 
within its different leaves. 

2. A bottle filled with water, and corked on freezing", 
never fails to be broken. 

44. Deep lakes of water do not freeze in 
winter. 

Illustration. This is owing" to the circumstance of 
colder air being constantly presented at the surface of 
the lake, which causes a portion of the water to lose 
its temperature, and thus becoming neavier, falls gra- 
dually to the bottom, while the warnfer water below 
ascends, forming a new surface m its place. Hence the 
beautiful commerce between the ocean and the atmos- 
phere; the former of which containing, against winter, 
the season of need, such hoards of warmth as to supply 
the incumbent atmosphere; which the latter freely re- 
pays in warm seasons. Hence the more equable tem- 
perature of insular situations, when compared with 
places of the same latitude, far from the sea. 

4o. The chemical effects of caloric in melt- 
ing or fusing metals, earths, and other solid 
bodies, are equally striking with its effects in 
expanding or heating fluid. 

46. Expansion differs from fluidity. 

'ration. No substance can be expanded beyond 
a certain limit, during which time its specific gravity 
diminishes; or a given volume weighs less as its tempera- 
ture increases. 

Experiment. Expose ice and ice-cold water, to the 
same degree of heat, the ice will not become hottef, 
hut the water will. When, however, the ice is entirely 
fused, its temperature will increase equally with that of 



OF CfALO] 

47. In bodies which expand, there is 
regular increase and contractio/i of bulk, ac- 
cording to tin of heat. 

48. All solids (which are not decomposed 
iloric alone) fuse at a determinate point, 

which is termed their melting point. No two 
substances fuse at the same temperature. 

Illustration. Tallow melts in the hand, but 'the high- 
est degrees of heat, capable of being excited in our 
furnaces, do not (properly speaking) liquify platina. It 
is, however, fusible". 

49. All bodies require a certain tempera- 
ture to maintain them in a liquid state: and 
many are solid at that of the atmosphere. 

Illustration. When these are fused by excess of heat 
in furnaces or otherwise, they gradually concrete on 
being exposed anew to the ordinary temperature. 

50. Some bodies, such as earth, stones, &c. 
concrete or melt into masses like glass. This 
operation is called vitrification. But the re- 
ducing of metals from a solid to a fluid* by 
the application of heat, is termed fusion. 

51. Another important effect produced by 
caloric, is the formation of vapour or steam. 

52. By vapour is meant a transparent fluid 
like air, of great elasticity, and capable of be- 
ing greatly increased in bulk by additions of 

Illustration, 1. This effect of vapour is exemplified 
small pieces of glass called candle balls, sold in the 
toy-slw e glass balls, when placed near the flame 

of a lighted candle, burst with a loud noise, from < I 
pansion into vapour of the drop of watc 



OF CALORIC. Zi 

,reat danger attends the melting of metals, or boil- 
ng of oils, in consequence of the expansfve power of va- 
pour; for, if by any accident, a small quantity of water 
falls into the vessel containing the hot fluid, it will be 
converted into vapour with such rapidity, as to scatter 
the fluid, metal, or boiling oil, in all directions, with an 
explosion resembling that of gunpowder. 

53. The point at which a fluid is converted 
into vapour, depends upon a certain degree of 
heat called the boiling point. The boiling point 
of water has been fixed at 212° of Fahrenheit's 
thermometer, and the freezing point at 32°. 

54. If water be prevented from going off in 
steam, it may be heated to a degree equal to 
that of metals when red hot. 

■ ration. The machine used for this purpose- ( call- 
ed Papm's Digester) is a copper vessel half filled with 
water, the head of which is closely screwed down. When 

iter is so hot as to send off \apour, its escape is 
prevented by means of a weight and lever across the 
lid, which confine it in proportion to the increased pres- 
sure of the vapour. Lead and tin nave been melted in 

chine, and bones have been totally dissolved, 
leaving nothing but earth or ashes. 

55. Water does not become hotter by being 
I long in the common way; for after 

' heated to the boiling point, the h£at 
converts a portion of the water into 
id the additional heat applied to the 
s off with the vapour. 

56. The property in steam or vapour of re- 
taining a great quantity of heat or calflric, has 
suggested the idea of warming houses by 
means of steam instead of coals or other fuel. 



OP CALOHIC. 

Illustration* Large manufactori 

warlhed in this manner. In the lower part 
of the building, or in the kitchen, a furnace is erected, 
to which a large boiler or copper is fixed: from this an 
pipe or tube ascends, and is made to pass through 
apartment of the building- until it reaches the roof. 
The heated air or steam passing through these pipes, 
diffuses an equable degree of heat throughout the whole 
of the building, and the saving in point of fuel is found 
to be immense. 

57. Heat is also the agent employed in 
the operations of evaporation, distillation, 
and sublimation. 

Example 1. If we take a mass of clay, water, and 
quicksilver, and expose it to heat, the water will first 
ito vapour, and by increasing the heat the quick- 
will also rise, and leave the clay by itself. This 
process is called evaporation. 

2. When we .wish to obtain the volatile parts con- 
densed into a fluid, the process is called distillation. 

3. And when these volatile parts are condensed into 
a sold form, the process is called sublimation, and the 
prod ict a sublim.v 

>rt. When camphor is exposed in a crucible 
to the heat of a lamp, and a cold body (as a plate of cop- 
per or iron) is presented, it condenses the vapours, and 
re-exhibits the invisible odorous fluid again, in a con- 
. and often in^. crystalline form. 

Heat operates in a different manner 
upon animal and vegetable substances, from 
oes on miner 

If a piece of flesh be exposed to heat, it 
is not, like iron, expanded, but on the contrary is con- 
l, from the moist or humid parts flying off. 
59. Combustion, to which air is an indis- 
pensable requisite, is the most important 



OF dALORK 29 

ource of caloric. Such bodies as are capa- 
>le of inducing this effect are termed combus- 
ible bodies. 

60. Bodies which are not combustible, are 
rt)t altered by heat in a permanent manner. 

61. Combustible bodies, on the contrary, 
ly the decomposition of oxygen gas become 
iources of light and heat. Their capacity 
)f producing Tight and heat is however gra- 
lually exhausted, and what remains after 
iorfibustion, appears to be a different sub- 
stance, and no longer combustible. 

ir>2. Incombustible bodies really receive 

aloric from surrounding bodies of any kind 

}f a higher temperature, . and as readily part 

with it -again when the temperature is dimi- 

lished. 

cation. This does not apply to organic matter, 
whether animal or vegetable, after death, nor even du- 
ring life, except within a very limited range. »When 
sty. pail of the body is burnt, destructive analysis takes 
dace, and the vital principle is banished from the part. 
Experiment 1. When a stone m|de red hot is plung-- 
d into water, the warmth it loses al not extinguished,' 
"op it will be found, in proportion to its quantity, to 
have elevated the temperature of the liquid. 

Bodies of the same temperature do not communi- 
ate or imbibe heat with the same facility. Thus quick- 
silver feels colder to the touch than water, Mater than 
oil, lead than marble, marble than wood, though all 
are, in reality, of the same temperature. 

Observation. In these instances, it is plain that the 
land more readily parts with its heat to some of these 
( o others, leaving a lesser or greater impres- 
C2 



OF OXYGEN. 



sion of cold, a>, more or less heat is abstracted in equal 

nine. * 

OF OXYGEN. 

63. Oxygen is never found in an unconi- 
bincd state. It approaches nearest to purity 
in the state of a vapour or oxygen gas. 

64. Oxygen combines with all the metals, 
depriving them of their metallic lustre as welt 
as their cohesive quality, and gives them. an 
earthy or rusty appearance. This combina- 
tion, which was formerly known by the name 
of calx, is ntw termed an oxide. 

65. Some of the metals become oxidized, 
or are rusted, by mere exposure to the damp 
and moisture of the common air. 

Example. The rust which iron so readily contracts., 
is an oxide of the metal, produced by its attracting" the 
oxygen from air or water. 

66. All the metals, at suitable tempera- 
tures, become oxidized in contact with the 
atmospheric aim even* gold and silver, for- 
merly supposed incapable of corrosion, may, 
like the other metals, lose their metallic 
splendour and become oxides. 

07. All oxides are heavier than the quan- 
tity of the metal which produced them, in 
proportion to the quantity of oxygen with 
which they are combined, 

68. Oxygen gas is readily procured by de- 
composing the substances which contain, its 
b^e. 



OF OXYGEN. 41 

'ration. The process of producing oxygen gas 
from red-lead (which is the red oxide or rust of lead), 
or from the black ore of manganese, is very simple. Pro- 
cure a tub or trough A, {see plate, Jig. 1.) with a shelf 
KK, on which BGF are glass jars or receivers, which, as 
well as the tub, are filled with water: C and E are glass 
retorts, into which the manganese or red-lead, and a 
small quantity of sulphuric acid, are to be inserted. 
Apply the heat of a lamp to the bottom of the retorts, 
and in a few minutes the oxygen will rise in bubbles, and 
fill the receivers, from which it will force down the water. 

69. Oxygen gas forms about twenty one 
parts in the hundred by measure, and twenty 
three and three-tenths by weight. 

70. Combustion requires for its mainte- 
nance the presence of oxygen gas. The quan- 
tity of caloric liberated during combustion, 
depends entirely upon the quantity of oxygen 
gas combined in a given space of time, with 
the combustible body. 

Illustration. In the lamp of Argand, with a circular 
wick, the flame is derived from the ignition of the va- 
pour of the oil, heated to a sufficient extent for that pur- 
pose That air is necessarv to the perfect combustion 
of this vapour, may be knoVn by stopping the avenue 
to the interior part of the wick, by immersion of the 
lower part of the lamp in water, when considerable 
smoke will instantly appear, and the light be propor^ 
tionablv dimmed. 

71. Oxygen gas has a strong tendency to 
unite with simple combustibles. It is an es- 
sential constituent of the acids: with sulphur 
it forms the sulphuric, with carbon the car- 
bonic, with phosphorus the phosphoric, and 



With Hydrogen it/orms in the 

>n of eigh 
Oxygen, and h of ljy- 

hough per- 
1, contain' nciplc 

tial. 

i does fiot impart the acid char- 
to all substances. Such as it i 
this character to, are called acidifiable 

id (from w 
;r fermentation. Thus, when win other 

i fluids, are exposed at a moder; ratur<£ 

atmosphere, they absorb Oxygen from it, and 
o vinegar.. 
74. The nomenclature of the acids vai 
according as the acidifiable base is satin 
in the first .or second with oxygen, 

the compound* are distinguished by 
lion in ic or ot 
)on. As, sulphurous and sulphu 

one acids, &c. In these instan- 
mlphur or the phosphorus combim 
nt portions of oxygen, and yield in i 
Is similar to their base, but diJ 
ical properties. 

of hydrogen 

drogen is one*of the constituents 
i and one-tenth parts of ftydro- 
hty eight and nine-tenths of \ 
his fluid. 



Oh' HYDRGG£-N. J3 

■srcation. The modern theory of chemistry ascribes 
to hydrogen, as well as to oxygen, the" acidifying* prin- 
ciple. The following 1 extracts are made in order to 
shew that this opinion is not fully admitted. 

Dr. Murray, in his paper of the 12th of January, 
1818, observes, "That the progress of chemical dis- 
covery has shewn, that oxygen cannot be regarded as 
exclusively the principle which communicates acidity. 
The same property is in different cases communicated 
by hydrogen. When water is obtained from muriatic 
acid gas, it does not necessarily follow that it has pre- 
existed in the state of water. It is equally p'ossible, a 
priori, that the elements of water may have existed in 
the gas. On this view, oxymuriatic acid will be a 
binary compound of a radical, at present unknown, 
with oxygen; and muriatic acid, a ternary compound of 
the same radical, with oxygen and hydrogen. And 
when muriatic acid gas is formed from the mutual ac- 
tion of oxymuriatic gas and hydrogen, it is simply from 
the hydrogen entering into union," &c. 

To this reasoning, Professor Cooper, makes the fol- 
lowing reply : 

" With respect to the acidifyingicharacter of hydro- 
gen, I am not yet prepared to regard it as irrevocably 
settled. Even though Dr. Murray, in his late paper 
on the theory of chlorine, seems willing to suppose 
that the elements of water, and not water itself, enter 
into the chemical constitution of muriatic acid, and that 
the water .obtained is formed during the process of ob- 
taining it. The theory is ingenious: but I see nothing 
that is gained by substituting ternary for binary com- 
binations. The facts are as well explained on the lat- 
ter as on the former theory; and till new facts, inexpli- 
cable on the old doctrine, be discovered, I see no good 
reason for embracing a new one. 

' 1 With respect to sulphuretted hydrogen, Dr. Murray 
certainly talks in too strong language, when he says in 
his late memoir, that sulphur forms with hydrogen a 
substance unequivocally acid. — it takes away the c< 






OF HYDROGEN. 

of paper blued «>\ litmus, but without turning it red* 

with alkalies is no in llphur 

if hydrogen, uni 

rig sulphuretted hyd 
well b atmosphei 

ployed during the process of making 
, a part of the v 

irnish its oxygen. These are difficul- 

of the modern theory, which must be 

surmo ore Dr. Murray's opinions ftnu lull 

" 8§c Pref. to Thomson's Chem., Philadelphia 

16. The simplest form in which hydrogen 
is found, is in a state of combination with ca- 
loric, in the form of hydrogen gas. 

77. By almost all the processes in which 
water is decomposed, hydrogen is furnished; 
for, in most cases, the decomposing^ agent 
combines with the oxygenous portion. 

Example 1. If ^ater ba d through 

a g n-barrel, or uon in the 

middle, such water will be decompo 
combining with and o he hy- 

tie opposite 
end in a gaseous form. 

When red hot iron is a por- 

tion of the latter is decomp< 

i own by its tibility 

mospheric air, when a 

jhter 

.to tli Byno- 

nymous kvith \ e last 

i gas 
a a taper when plunged 



OF HYDROGEN. 35 

_. only kindles at tl 
accession of the atmosphere is permitted. Tt burns 
silently at|fre point of contact, but with loud explosion 
when biended with atmospheric air in certain propor- 
tions, and still lo:der when mixed with pure oxygen 
gas, in the proportion of two parts of the former to 
one of the latter, by measure. 

'9. This gas is noxious to animals, but its 
comparative levity and immiscibility with the 
atmosphere, carries it rapidly beyond 'the 
point whence any detriment would, gene- 
rally speaking, arise from it. 

ObservQ Hon . It is thought to form the region of lumi- 

i.pours in the upper part of the atmosphere.. 
Experiment. To procure hydrogen gas, provide a 
vial with a cork stopper; through which pass a glass 
tube, or piece of tobacco-pipe. Into this vial, half 
filled « few small iron nails, to which 

add of a quantity equal to one third of 

re \ ill be a very considerable de- 
gree of heat excited, the acid must be cautiously add- 
ed, and ii« small quantities at a time. Replace the 
cork, and the hydrogen gas will be liberated through, 
the tube. To which, after the atmospheric air in the 
. i off, apply the name of a candle, and the 
gas will immediately take fire and burn with a clear 
1 ic hydrogen in the vial is exhausted. Care 
must be taken, however, not to apply the candle until 
the atmo spheric air in the vial is driven off, or the 
.e will be explosion. 

n. In this experiment, a decomposition of 
.kes place; its oxygen unites to the iron and 
forms an oxide of iron, which combines with the acid 
and forms a sulphate, while the hydrogen, the other 
constituent part of the water, is driven off in the form 
.•■ 

Hydrogen forms one of the constitu- 



of HTDRQGES 

ents of pit-coal, ^jhencc it is capable or 
ing disengaged, combined with carbon, in 
the form of carburetted hydrogen gbs. 

• rvation. This gas burns with a much more bril- 
liant light than that of common hydrogen; while it is 
found to be safer than that produced by common lamps 
and is more grateful to the eye than any other. In 
England it has been of late extensively adapted to the 
lighting of streets and houses. 

Experiment 1. If a bladder, free from air, be 
moistened and compressed, having previously adapted 
a perforated cork to a tobacco-pipe stopper, this cork 
being inserted in the neck of the phial containing the 
materials for furnishing hydrogen, the bladder becomes 
readily inflated by that gas. 

2. Adapt the end of a common tobacco-pipe to the 
bladder thus filled with hydrogen gas, and dip the bowl 
of the pipe in soapsuds, prepared j^ if for blowing up 
soap-bubbles. Squeeze out small portions of gas from 
the bladder into these soapsuds, and the bubbles form* 
ed will ascend into the air with very great rapidity, un- 
til they arc out of sight. 

3. If a lighted taper or candle is applied to the bub- 
bles as they ascend from the bowl of a tobacco-pipe, 
they will explode or burst with a loud noise. — Illustra- 
tion. By the application of the flame of the candle in 
this experiment, the hydrogen in the soap$ubbles is 
burnt or decomposed, and forms water by uniting with 

ii of the atmosphere. The noise made by 

xplosion, is occasioned by the atmospheric air 

suddenly rushing in, or collapsing upon the empty 

space left by the bursting or exploding of the gas 

bubble. 

4. In every inflammation, according to the new theo- 
ry, there is a union between the base of oxygen gas, 
and the combustible body: The investigation of tlus 
union has given birth to the most interesting discover? 
of modern t' , th$ formation of water, T&9 or- 



OF HYDROGEN. 37 

I ination of water may be exhibited by holding a cold 
I tumbler over the flame of hydrogen gas, as it proceeds 
I through a small tube. 

5. In order to produce an imitation of the gas lights, 
pound a small quantity of coal to powder, and put it 
into the bowl of a tobacco-pipe. Cover the coal closely 
over with clay, and put the bowl of the pipe into the 
fire. In a few minutes a stream of hydrogen gas will 
issue from the end of the tobacco-pipe, which may be 
set fire to with a candle, or a piece of lighted paper, in 
the usual way. 

6. In the production of gas lights on a larger scale, 
the coal is put into an iron cauldron, or retort, and heat 
applied to it, when the gas ascends, and is distributed 
by means of metal pipes, into various apartments of a 
house, or throug'h the streets of a town. But a better 
method of obtaining carburetted hydrogen gas for im- 
mediate use in parlours or sitting rooms, is to procure 
it from pitch or tar. 

81. In the experiments upon the combus- 
tion of hydrogen gas, a dangerous explosion 
takes place, if care be not taken to keep the 
gas entirely free from any mixture of com- 
mon air. 

Experiment 1. Into a strong jar, introduce one part, 
of hydrogen gas, and two parts of common air; the 
combustion will be attended with sudden explosion. 

- . Into the same vessel introduce two parts hydrogen 
gas, and one of oxygen gas. The explosion of these is 
iitill more violent. As vessels are af>t to break in these 
experiments, it is adviseable to wrap a towel round the 
glass in which the explosion is to be made. 

82. Carburetted hydrogen gas is that 
which is produced from the distillation of 
coal, as already described. 

; Observation. Dr. Henry has shewn, that the air in 
coal mines, called Jin damp, is light carburetted hy- 



38 OF UYDROGl 

Heels of explosion produced by this fire 
damp, have been long* known, and In quencv 

*nd ■ been peculiarly terrible? while all the 

itilate mines on the most approved prin- 
I insufficient to prevent the 
of Buch catastrophes. But a recent discovery of I 
effect ed by numerous ingenious experi i i 
indered the community an invaluable benefit, by 
the formation of a safety lamp, which can be taken into 
\\ here this air exists, without danger. Jt is com- 
I simply of wire gause, in the shape of a cylinder, 
Which covers the burning- wick; and which, while it re- 
mits tight, excludes the passage of blaze to the external 
air. The fire damp (as has been found by experiment) 
will not inflame by iron wire heated red hot; so that 
the exclusion of blaze renders the lamp perfectly safe, 
although the wire becomes ignited. 

apertures in the gause should not exceed one 
twentieth of an inch in diameter, and the thickness of 
the wire from one-fortieth to one-sixtieth of an inch. 
The wire cylinder that serves as a cover to the lamp, and 
is fastened to it by a screw of four or five turns, should 
not be more than two inches in diameter, and six and a 
tches long:. This is screwed on a^vlindric box, 
ning the oil and the wick, and about two and a 
half inches in diameter. The gause cylinder is defend- 
ed by six strong upright wires, fixed in the upper part of 
this box, and supporting a cylindric top of metal, to 
is fixed the ring by which the lamp is carried. 
!1 cylinder projecting from the side of the rfnder 
the lamp, serves to convey the oil to the wick, 
whole is so perfectly simple, so easily used, and 
so little liable to accident, that it is singularly accommo- 
1 o t he circumstances in which it is to be employed. 
1 1 ydrogen gas, besides being combined 
with water, may also be combined with sul- 
phur, phosphorus, and carbon. It is then 



OP HYDROGEN. 39 

called sulphuretted hydrogen, phosphuretted 
hydrogen, and carburetted hydrogen. 

Observation . The combination of phosphorus and hy- 
drogen gas possesses the property of taking" fire when 
exposed to the air of the atmosphere, but more beauti- 
fully when oxygen gas is used. The following is the 
method of making this gas. 

Experiment 1. Take two ounces of slacked lime, one 
drachm of phosphorus, and half an ounce of watery put 
them into a small retort, and apply heat: the bubbles 
will burst and inflame as soon as they reach the top of 
the water, and beautiful undulating wreaths of smoke 
dance through the air, expanding as they ascend, exhi- 
biting one of the most interesting experiments in chem- 
istry. — A solution of pure potash will enable us to 
make this experiment with more ease : Introduce into 
a retort a dilute solution of caustic potash, with a piece 
of phosphorus; these, when heated to boiling, exhibit 
the appearance described. 

2. When bubbles of phosphuretted hydrogen gas are 
received in jars of oxygen gas, beautiful flashes of 
light are produced, as roon as they reach the latter. 
These phenomena arise from the very minute division 
of the phosphorus in the hydrogenous gas, by which it 
is disposed to unite with oxygen, wherever it is pre- 
sented to it. 

Illustration. The decomposition of water by phos- 
phorus, when lime or alkali is presented, is much more 
rapid than when water and phosphorus alone are em- 
ployed, because it is aided by the disposition there is 
in the earth or alkali, to unite with the acid to be pro- 
duced by the decomposition of the water. Phosphu- 
retted hydrogen retains its qualities, if kept over mer- 
cury, but not if kept over water. In the latter case, 
after a short time, hydrogen only remains. 

Sulphuretted hydrogen gas forms part 
of tho foetid effluvia which rises from house^ 



10 OP CARBON. 

drains, and is produced by the decomposition 
of animal and vegetable substances contain- 
ing sulphur and hydrogen. 

Observation. It is this species of air which gives to 
certain mineral waters, such as those of Harrowgate, 
their medicinal qualities. 

85. The fire-works formed by hydrogen 
gas may be produced of different colours, ac- 
cording as the substances with which the hy- 
drogen combines differ in their degrees of 
purity. 

Illustration. Persons who are in the habit of exhi- 
biting fire-works with inflammable air, obtain it by dif- 
ferent processes, each of which present some variety or 
modification of colour, from the substances accidentally 
dissolved in it. When obtained from jether, it exhibits 
a dense blue flame, in the act of combustion. Pure 
hydrogen gas is said to be destitute of srneU. 

OP CARBON. 

86. Carbon in its greatest state of purity 
exists in the diamond. 

Observation. Very pure carbon is obtained by strong- 
ly igniting lamp black in a covered crucible. This 
yields, like the diamond, unmixed carbonic acid, by 
combustion in oxygen. 

87. It is most frequently to be found com- 
bined with a certain proportion of oxygen, 
10 which case it is called charcoal. 

88. Charcoal is the coaly matter left by 
vegetable bodies when heated in close ves- 
sels. It is generally procured on burning 



OF CARBON. 41 

I 

wood, with smothered heat, and extinguish- 
ing it when red hot 

Experiment. Expose wood of any kind, stripped of 
its bark, to a red heat, in a close vessel, till vapours 
cease to issue, and you obtain an opaque brittle sub- 
stance, easily reduced to powder, without taste and 
smell, which is called charcoal. If you pound this sub- 
stance, and wash away the salts it may contain with di- 
luted muriatic acid, and afterwards apply repeated af- 
fusions of cold water, and then dry it in a sub-red heat, 
you obtain it sufficiently pure for general purposes: 
common charcoal, dried in an oven, will answer, where 
great nicety is not required. 

Observation. From having* become fixed in the fire, 
no heat is able to volatilize any considerable portion of 
this substance. When newly made, it will absorb its 
own bulk of air; and it also attracts and strongly re- 
tains a small quantity of water. 
( 89. Charcoal is a powerful antiseptic, or 
enemy to putridity. 

Observation. The powder of fresh charcoal is strong- 
ly disposed to unite with the odorous particles of bo- 
aiid the colouring matter of vegetables: it maybe 
therefore employed to correct the bad smell of corrupt- 
ed water, of oiled silk bags, of ill-conditioned ulcers, 
and even cancers, and of decayed teeth when used as 
tooth powder. It is employed to deprive vegetable in- 
fusions, and other substances, used in chemistry, of their 
colour; for the concentration of the acetic acid; and to 
give mellowness and maturity to newly distilled spirits. 
(Note. Its principal use, however, is "a* a fuel, but it 
ought always to be remembered, that the gas which 
arises from burning charcoal, is the most insidious and 
deleterious that can be inhaled.) 

on 1. Meat, which is a little tainted with pu- 
tridly, on being rubbed over with charcoal, in powder, 
will immediately become s 

D? 



42 OF CARBON. 

2. Throw a quantity of charcoal into water which 
has been long kept, or which has become foul by be- 
ing' in contact with putrid substances, and the water 
will become perfectly sweet in the course of a few 
hours. 

3. Rubbing the teeth with charcoal when finely pow- 
dered, will render them beautifully white, and the 
breath perfectly sweet, when its oflfensiveness has been 
occasioned from a scorbutic disposition of the gums. 

90. Neither moisture nor air affect charcoal 
when kept cool, nor can it be destroyed by 
heat unless there be a free access to the exter- 
nal air. 

Illustration 1. This property of charcoal, combined 
with its power of resisting the action of putridity, has 
suggested its application to casks for containing water 
during long voyages? for wkich purpose the inner sur- 
faces of the casks are to be charred or burnt at the 
time of their manufacture. 

2. The points of stakes or piles, intended to be fixed 
into the ground, are also charred in the same manner, 
by which their durability is greatly increased. 

91. Carbon is the principal constituent of 
fossil coal, and also of the woody fibre of ve- 
getables. 

92. It also enters into the composition of 
wax, oils, gum, and resins. 

93. Carbon combines with iron in several 
proportion* 

Illustration. Plumbago, or black ] ead, of which pen- 
cils are made, is a compound of iron and carbon, in the 
proportion of nine parts carbon, to one of iron. It has 
nothing similar to lead about it, unless its inquinating 
property, by which paper is so readily marked. In this 
combination, we h;ivc a metallic alloy, less cohesive 



or CARBON, 43 

han almost any other substance, mercurial amalgam 
excepted;' whilst the very same ingredients, in diffe- 
rent proportions, produce another alloy, steel, which 
has properties diametrically opposite, as it is capable 
of cutting the hardest substances, with few exceptions. 
The softest steel is harder than the hardest iron. The 
process of hardening steel is called tempering or attem- 
pering, and consists in that novel arrangement of the 
particles which is produced, when steel, while hot, is 
plunged into cold liquids, as water. The colder the 
liquid, or the more sudden the operation of cooling, 
the harder will the steel be. Case-hardening is the su- 
perficial conversion of the surface of iron into steel, by 
tieating i^in contact with animal carbon in close ves- 
sels. Baftron is converted into steel in the same way, 
only that powdered charcoal is the substance in which 
it is imbedded. 

94. Carbon is the basis of the carbonic 
acid. * 

Illustration. When a piecse of common charcoal is 
burnt, this acid is formed: it exists in the form of a gas, 
termed by the elder chemists fixed air. It is highly 
deleterious, and gradually privative of life when breath- 
ed, even although it may be mixed with atmospheric 
air. It is similar to the gas yielded during fermenta- 
tion, and is resident on the surface of vats of fermen- 
tating liquors. 

95. Carbonic acid has a great tendency to 
combination. With earths, alkalies, and me- 
tals, it forms carbonates. 

Observation. It is also combinable with water: hence 
the acidulated mineral springs, as of Pyrmont, Spa, 
&c. It is this product which gives the agreeable zest 
and sparkling appearance to beverages, which are the 
result of fermentation. Small beer, bottled ale, cyder, 
and champaign, owe their grateful taste to the diffu- 
sion of carbonic acid in thesg beverages. It retains all 



I ARBON. 

the antiseptic properties of its ba 

its importance in putrid and other diseases of a 

tendency. It is diffused throughout nature. The 

Grotto del Cani, and the lake Averno, are remarkable 

for the quantity of this subtile fluid which th 

it was named by Van Helmont, in the days of alchemy, 

gas silvcstre, because derived from the combustion of 

wood. 

96. The carbonate of most importance, 
that of lime. 

Observation. Common chalk is such a carbonate, and 
only differs from other lime-stone, and from marble, in 
its want of compactness or texture. Chalk eflrr 
with acids, and generally speaking 1 , all ca^pna> 
the same. Tins effervescence arises fronWne disen- 
gagement of carbonic acid gas, which is produced by 
superior affinity of the acid aliased. 

97. Carbonic acid gas is 1 nearly twice as 
heavy, bulfrfor bulk, as atmospheric air; and 
is destructive to animal life. 

Illustration. The carbonic acid gas always accumu- 
lates in rooms which want vent i hit in owded 
audiences necessarily furnish contamination. Th 
mess of complexion, where, into pursuits, th» 
lent breathes in close delete 

"Companion of the midnight-la 
tinctly marked. Want of attention to th< 
<•! nnstances is no compliment to the philosophic day* 
in which we have the satisfaction to live. And how 
frequent are the accidents which take place in brewe 
by the ill-timed descent of workmen into vats stil 
idled with fixed air, where from its weight it remains 
permanently lodged! 

Carbonic acid generally constitute i 
considerable portion of the atmosphere of cel- 
lars, wells, mines, &c. which have been lonj 
excluded from the external air. 



OF CARBON. 45 

99. Charcoal, and all substances which con- 
tain it, yield carbonic acid during combus- 
tion. 

Illustration. In compound combustibles, the quan- 
tity of carbonic acid produced, is, during- their combus- 
tion, in proportion to the actual quantity of carbon or 
charcoal which such bodies contain. 

Experiment 1. To procure carbonic acid gas, pound 
chalk, which is a carbonate of lime, and put it into a 
glass retort or phial. Pour on it sulphuriG acid largely 
diluted with water. The lime having a stronger affini- 
ty for the sulphuric acid, will unite to it, and will form 
a sulphate of lime, (which is Plaster of Paris,) while 
the carbonic acid gas will be driven off in great abun- 
dance, and may be collected in jars or tumblers. 

?. When there is reason to apprehend the existence 
of carbonic acid gas in wells or other deep places, be- 
fore attempting to enter them, a lighted candle should 
always be introduced. If the flame becomes extinguish- 
ed there is no doubt of the existence of this gas; and in 
order to remove it, quick lime should be let down in 
buckets and gradually sprinkled with water. As the 
lime slacks, it will absorb the carbonic acid gas, and 
wiD render the air pure. 

3. The action between nitric acid and charcoal is 
very singular. If very fuming acid be made to trickle 
down the sides of a glass vessel containing dry charcoal 
powder, the carbon unites to the oxygen of the acid with 
such rapidity as to produce inflammation. The glass 
should first be slightly warmed. 

4. When charcoal is burnt in oxygen gas, nearly the 
whole of it disappears, and the carbonic acid of the 
new nomenclature appears. The charcoal being made 
red-hot for this purpose, is to be placed upon a dish, 
-end introduced into a jar of oxygen gas, where it burns 
with great brilliancy. When combustion ceases, pour 
into the glass a small portion of water, containing the 
tincture of litmus, and it will be converted to a red, 



46 OF r I \LS. 

intimating" the formation of acid during" the combustion 
of the charcoal. 

5. Counterpoise a large funnel of paper, in a pair of 
scales, and pour carbonic acid into it, i: >ut of a 
jar, as you would do water, when the descent of the ba- 
lance shows that this g-as is heavier than alino 

6. Poured upon a taper, it extinguishes the flame as 
water would do. 

7. Into a jar, full of mercury, inverted over the mer- 
curial apparatus, introduce equal measures of carbonic 
acid gas and water. Agitate them together, and the 
gas will be absorbed. The water not only reddens blue 
vegetable colours, but is acidulous to the taste. As 
the acid is but loosely combined, heat readily expels it 
from the water, restoring the blue colour. 

8. Place a lighted candle on the surface of lime-wa- 
ter, and invert over it a glass vessel either containing 
common air or oxygen gas. The water will rise in the 
jar when the flame is extinguished, and become milky. 

9. Respire by a tube through lime-water, and the 
lime will be instantly precipitated. 

10. When plants, as a sprig of mint, is made to 
grow in carbonic acid, it reduces it to pure oxygen gas, 
attaching to itself its carbonaceous base. 

Observation. Whatever refuses to maintain combus- 
tion, is not subservient to respiration; but as animals 
plunged into this gas instantaneously perish, it appears 
not only to be negatively, but positively, fatal, t< 
.tic and hydrogen gases may be breathed sc\ eral times 
without much mischief. 

OF THE METALS. 

100. 71 fetals are distinguished from other 
bodies by their weigh y, and splen- 

dour; also by their property 
galvanic or electric fl l 



0£ THE METALS. 47 

101. The closeness of the texture of metals 2 
;heir ductility, and malleability, and the pow- . 

r which all have to reflect light when polish- 
id, fit them for being converted into various 
itensils, both for the purposes of common 
ife, and the different arts. 

102. Metals, as far as known, are the hea- 
viest of all bodies. 

Example. Tin, bulk for bulk, weighs seven times 
ls much as water, and platina nearly twenty -three times 1 
is much. 

103. The metals are incapable of transmit- 
ing light through their substance. 

Observation. Gold, however, when very finely la* 
ninated, does transmit light. 

104. They are remarkable for being con- 
luctors of heat and electricity. 

105. The most common and best known 
imong the metals, may be beat into any 
orm, under the hammer, without cracking 
>r crumbling. This property implies their 
nalleability. 

106. They can also be drawn into fine 
>vire. This property is termed their ductility, 

Observation. In whatever manner we extend the 
urface of a metal, though previously cold, it is found 
o wax warm and become rigid, and refuses, under 
•oilers, to extend further; but it is restored to its former 
liancy by heating, and allowing it to cool gradually. 
This is called annealing. When it has been again ex- 
:ended, more heat becomes sensible, and Ls lost; and 
this must be again restored if we would wish to extend 
it further. 

lUustrat When metals are subjected f o heat 



48 OF TICK MKTALS. 

they expand in every direction, but in different pro- 
portions. When the temperature is much increased, 
they become liquid, and, if in mass, present a convex 
surface, but if in small drops, they are globular, as in 
ihe case of metals fused at the blow-pipe. If the tem- 
perature be increased considerably beyond that neces- 
sary for fusion, they may be sometimes volatalized un- 
changed. — Example. Mercury is evaporated at 600° 
but is concrete at minus 40°. Lead melts at a heat -be- 
low the boiling point of mercury. Iron, at a strong 
white heat, becomes a sort of liquid paste: and platina 
cannot be fused in the greatest heat which can be pro- 
duced in our furnaces, but requires the aid of a blow- 
pipe and oxygen g*as. 

107. Metals arc converted into a fluid state 
by the addition of caloric. This is termed 
fusion. 

Observatio?!. Some are always in a fluid state, even 
at almost all known temperatures, as mercury. 

108. When the heat is long continued in 
the open air, most of the metals become rust- 
ed, or assume a cinder-like appearance, by at- 
tracting that part of the air called oxygen, 

109. They are then called oxides of the 
metals, and are said to have been oxidized. 

Example 1. Copper becomes oxidated by being 
made red hot, and exposed for a time to the atmosphere 
in that state. 

2. Coded iron wire also, when heated for some time 
to redness in the bowl of a tobacc-pipe, loses its metal- 
lic splendour, and crumbles into a rust or oxide of 
iron 

3. Antimony being exposed to a red heat, on an iron 

n £:ls from a tube attached 
to a bag containing it, pressed upon its surface, becomes 
converted with a beautiful appearance, into the oxide 
of antimonv. 



OP THE METALS. 49 

4. Zinc, exposed to a red heat in a crucible, exhibits 
ombustion, oxidation, and sublimation of the oxide, 

which when cold, is beautifully white and delicate. 

5. Wrap the finest harpsichord wire round a watch- 
spring", ascertain its weight, set it upright in a copper 
dish, in ajar of oxygen gas, inflame a bit of cotton, dip- 
ped in wax, and attached to the upper end of the wire, 
when a beautiful conflagration will ensue, and the me- 
tal will be found, in a state of oxide, to have increased 
in weight. 

Observation. Metals are also oxidized by being im- 
mersed in the substances called acids, which part with 
their oxygen or acidifying principle to the metals, and 
reduce them to oxides. 

110. In the state of oxides or rust they may- 
be dissolved in water and other fluids, in or- 
der to form dyes, painters' colours, &c. 

111. A metallic oxide is generally in .pow- 
der, resembling earth. 

112. Oxides weigh more than the metal 
from which they are produced. 

tration. If we melt one hundred pounds weight 
of lead in the open air, and keep it in a melted state 
until it is oxidized or changed into red-lead, it will be 
found to weigh one hundred and ten pounds. It has 
therefore imbibed ten pounds weight of oxygen from 
the atmosphere. 

113. Metals, in the state of oxides, may be 
brought back to their metallic state. This 
prooess is called reduction. 

m. As charcoal has a stronger attraction for 
a than any of the metals, mix up some common 
fed-lead, (oxide of lead) and charcoal, and expose the 
mixture in a shovel upon a strong fire. When the sho- 
vel is nearly red hot, the charcoal will be found to have 
E 



1 UK MET 

I the red-lead oi n\ and the residue will 

ommon Leajjl in a melted state. 

rvation 1. There, lire some metals that 

attract their contained oxygen so feebly, that the action 
of heat ulone is sufficient for their reduction. 

Mercury, by a long* and patient application of a 
moderate heat, changes to the red oxide of mei 
formerly called precipitate perse, because obtained w ith- 
OUt any visible addition. 

3. This red oxide, being" exposed to a hk;i. 
of heat, abandons the oxygen, for which it had no long- 
er anj sit I raction ; and the latter passes oil* in the form of 
OTygi n gas. It is upon this principle thatoxyg* 

dned (by exposure to heat alone) of the black ox- 
ide of manganese, which, of almost all substances, yields 
oxygen most abundantly, at least at the simplest cost. 

111/ The metals combine or unite with 
sulphur, phosphorus, and carbon. These 
combinations are called sulphurets, phosphu- 
nd carburets. 
115. The metals after being oxidized, 
dissolved by most of the substances called 
acids, and form solutions. 

1 1 (). The solution of the metals in the acid* 

is attended with effervescence and heat, and 

>cs where the water is decomposed and 

not the acid, hydrogen gas is emitted. 

1 1 7. The oxides of the metals readily unite 
with glass when melted together, and give it 
all the different tinges, by which it is made 
to resemble gems, or precious stones. 

118, Compounds of two metals are n 

than when separate, and on this 
account are used for soldering. 



OF THE METALS. 51 

Illustration . Th e solder used for gold workm anshlp , 
is a mixture of gold and silver, and for silver a mixture 
of silver and copper. 

119. Compounds of metals oxidize much 
more readily than separate metals. 

120* No metals are found in a pure state, 
except gold, silver, copper, and mercury. 

121. They are found in the state of ores, 
or mixed and blended with earths and other 

-tances. 

122. Sometimes the ore is a pure oxide, 
and requires but a simple operation to sepa- 
rate the oxygen from the metal. 

Illustration. The brown, or orange -coloured earth, 
called ochre, is an oxide of iron. Mix some of it with 
charcoal, and make the mixture red hot, the charcoal 
will take off the oxygen, and pure iron will remain. 

123. Metals are found in nature in various 
states. When uncombined, or when com- 
bined only v ? ith each other, they are said to 

■ be in a native state. When combined with 
other substances, so that the metallic proper- 
ties are in some measure disguised, they are 
said to be mineralized, or in a state of ore; 
this ore is usually mixed with earthy fossils, 
such as quartz, fluor spar, &c. 

Illustration. The ore may be separated from the ac- 
companying fossils, by being pounded with hammers or 
stampers. It is then washed on an inclined plane, by 
which means the water carries off' the earthy substance, 
and the metallic matter remains behind. After this 
operation, the ore, if it contain sulphur, arsenic, or any 
i to a low red heat, which is termed 



^2 OF THE METALS. 

roasting it, by which any of these substances is expelled. 
The metal is then reduced, by placing in a furnace al- 
ternate layers of the charcoal and the metallic substance; 
when a strong- heat being excited by bellows, the car- 
bonaceous matter attracts the oxygen with which the 
metal is combined, while the pure metal runs out at the 
bottom of the furnace. 

124. Gold, platina, silver, mercury, cop- 
per, iron, tin, lead, nickel, and zinc, are call- 
ed malleable metals, and may be beat into any 
shape with the hammer. 

125. Bismuth, antimony, tellurium, and 
arsenic, are called brittle metals, and may be 
easily fused or melted. 

126. Cobalt, manganese, tungsten, molyb- 
dena, uranium, titanium, chrome, columbium, 
tantalium, cerium, and nickel, are fused with 
difficulty. 

127. Besides the metals above mentioned 
there are four distinct ones, which have been 
found to exist associated with platina, viz. 
iridium, osmium, rhodium, and palladium. 

128. Gold is more ductile and malleable 
(that is, more easily beoten out with a ham- 
mer) than most of the other metals. 

129. It cannot be changed, rusted, or oxi- 
dized by the application of the common heat 
of a furnace, or by exposure to the air or 
water. 

130. Gold may hovv< ti the 
acid knov 

ed in chemistry nitro-niuriatic acid. 



OF THE METALS. 53 

Experiment, — Dissolve a piece of gold, or gold leaf, 
in aqua regia, and afterwards immerse a sheet of tin in 
the solution. The gold will adhere to the tin in the form 
of beautiful purple powder, which, when scraped oft', 
is the powder of cassius, so much used in painting and 
enamelling. This is an oxide of gold. 

131. Platinum, or platina, is found in 
the mines of Peru, in South America.. It is 
heavier than gold, and is therefore the hea- 
viest substance in nature. 

132. Platina is of a dull silvery, or grey 
colour, and is inferior to gold in point of mal- 
leability. 

Observation. Platinum, properly prepared, is now 
hammered in Paris into leaves of extreme thinness. Dr. 
Wollaston has also succeeded in producing platinum 
wire not exceeding l-3000th of an inch in diameter, by 
enclosing it in a little tube of silver, and drawing it 
through a steel plate in the usual way. 

133. It is melted or fused with more diffi- 
culty than any of the other metals, requiring 
a much higher degree of heat, and has been 
sometimes used for chemical utensils, such as 
crucibles, spoons, &c. which will resist the 
strongest heat that can be excited in our or- 
dinary furnaces. 

Observation. Professor Hare, of the University of 
Pennsylvania, by means of his compound blow-pipe, 
supplied with a stream of hydrogen and another of oxy- 
gen, has succeeded in bringing gold and silver to a state 
of ebullition; and in perfectly melting alumine, silex* 
and barytes. Globules of platina were almost instantly 
volatilized. 

131. Platina combines with most other 



J4 OF I 

tals. It is harder than any other metal, iron 
excepted. 

Illustration 1. Mirrors for tel< re made of 

platina, of exquisite beauty. The Spaniards are in the 
habit h tt'on, in order to form gun bar- 

to rust, and much 

n iron barrels alone, as it gives to the iron a 
It forms a valuable coating" for 
copp< r and iron, and may hereafter become precious for 
the formation of coins and medals. 

2. Platina, in its malleable state, may be cut with a 

But with steel it forms an alloy, not to be 
touched with a I 

3. The nitro-muriatic acid is the proper solvent for 
;ia. 

135. Silver ranks next ta gold in beauty 
and malleability. 

13G. Its uses in chemistry are confined to 
its operation when dissolved in nitric acid 
(aqua fortis. ) 

7. A solution thus formed is called ui- 
tta\ 

.air of a fine black, il 
the hi d with it once or twice; but the solu- 

r, otherwise it will burn 
in. 

138.. When the water of this solution h 
1 by boiling, a solid substance re- 
ar caustic, which burns oi 
very substance with which 
it c cit 

er may be decom- 
the silve id, by other n 

being thrown into the solution. 



OP THE METALS. 55 

Observation. Silver is applied to the surface of cop- 
per and other metals in plating". The silver is made 
into an amalgam with mercury, and applied to the plate 
of copper, which is then heated so as to drive oft the 
mercury; after which it is burnished. A less durable sil- 
vering 1 is effected by rubbing on the surface of the me- 
tal a mixture of silver precipitated from its nitrous solu- 
tion, whifh adheres to the copper, and is rendered more 
permanent by heat. In this way dial plates of clocks, 
and scales of thermometers, are silvered. 

Experiment. Fill a glass vial with solution of silver, 
and drop into it a small quantity of quicksilver; the sil- 
ver will be precipitated, and as the particles of the sil- 
ver and the quicksilver have an attraction for each other, 
the precipitate will assume the form of the branches of 
a tree. This has been called Diana's tree. 

140. Mercury, or quicksilver, is distin- 
guished from every other metal, by having 
so strong an attraction for caloric or heat, that 
it remains fluid in the ordinary temperature 
of the atmosphere. 

141. It may be frozen or rendered solid, 
however, by applying a great degree of cold 
to it. In this state it is a ductile and mallea- 
ble metal resembling block tin. 

142. Mercury combines easily with sul- 
phur, and the compound is then called sul- 
phuret of mercury. 

Illustration. Put some sulphur and quicksilver into 

a shovel, and make the whole red hot over a strong* fire, 

the beautiful paint called vermilion or cinnabar, will 

then be produced, wiiich is a sulphuiet of mercury. — 

Cinnabar is also found in a natural state, raid is 

,red as an ore of mercury. 

Mercury unites with other metals, 



OF THE METALS(. 

but the proportion of the mercury must 'be 
always the least. 

144. The union of mercury with another 
metal is called an amalgam, which is gene- 
rally soft, and of the consistence of butter. 

Illustration. The silvering' used for looking-gla 
is an amalgam of tin and mercury. Tinfoil fc spread 
over the glass, and fluid mercury poured upon it. The 
made to unite, or are amalgamated, by be- 
ing pressed together. 

Observation. Mercury is used also in the construc- 
tion of barometers, thermometers, and in medicine. A 
fulminating mercury bus likewise been discovered. 

145. Copper is hard, sonorous, highly mal- 
leable, and ductile, and of a ruddy brilliant 

our, 

146. If exposed to a very strong fire, it 
♦units white fumes, and burns with a green 

jflamc of great beauty and brilliancy. 

117. Copper is used in the arfs connected 
with chemistry, when united with the sub- 
called acids. 
rvatim 1. All the salts of copper are poisonous, 
care should be taken in attempting to 
lutions. Utensils made of copper or brass, 
1 not to be used for culinary purposes. Zinc, tin- 
, are pheap and proper substitutes. 
1 salts, formed b tal and the 

of a beautiful bli n. With the 

blue; but the nitrates, muriates, and ace- 

face of a e 
ury, it insl *rs as it 

J. Ammonia precipitates the copper of the sulphate 



OP THE METALS. 57 

of ammonia. Tills precipitate is of a whitish blue, but 
it dissolves almost the moment it is formed, and there re- 
sults a liquor of an 'exceedingly fine azu?e blue, for- 
merly called aqua coelestis. 

3. Iron precipitates copper from its solutions to a 
metallic state. Dip a knife-blade, free from grease, 
into a solution of sulphate of copper, and it appears to 
be transmuted into that metal. 

Illustration. When a piece of copper is put into 
acetic acid (vinegar), the copper takes the acid matter 
of oxygen from the vinegar, and the substance called 
verfr'gris is formed, so much used by painters. This is 
called an acetate of copper. 

148. Copper combines, or may be alloyed 
with most of the metals. 

Illustration. The gold coin of all countries is alloyed 
with a certain quantity of copper, to render it more du- 
rable. 

Observation. Copper, with iron, forms the elderado y 
a patent metal used for window frames, which posses- 
ses both elegance and strength. 

149! Copper, united with zinc, in the pro- 
portion of three parts of copper to one of zinc, 
forms the compound called bi % ass. 

150>. Iron is the most abundant of the me- 
tals. It has a peculiar taste and smell, neither 
of which are pernicious. 

151. It is the toughest of all the metals, but 
is less malleable than gold, silver, or copper. 

152. Iron is always found in the state of an 
ore, or in other words an oxide of the metal, 
mixed with earth. 

153. It is separated from the ore by being 
melted along with charcoal, in a furnace. 



THE METALS. 

154. When in a fluid, or melted stale, i 
run into moulds, and is then called pig, or 
iron. 

5. Cast iron upon being made red hot 
and beaten with hammers for some time, be- 
comes wrought iron, and is made into bars. 

Observation. At a temperature much below what is 
necessary for its fusion, iron softens and acquires the 
property of welding-; so that two pieces, by being sufli- 
cientlv 'heated, and hammered together, will unite and 
form one entire muss. This property, which belongs 
to no otheu metal except plutina, and to that in a very 
inferior degree, is a highly valuable one. 

156. Steel is iron combined with about one- 
sixteenth, part of its weight of the substance 
called carbon. 

Illustration. There are three kinds of steel, known 
by the names of natural steel, steel of cementation, and 
rust s: (il steel is prepared by simply heating 

iron for a certain time in a fun, I oj re- 

lion (or blistered, as it is sometimes called) 
pared by covering bars of wrought iron with pov 
charcoal, and heating them in a close furnace for eight 

me way, in the i 

chalk. 

157. Iron combines with the sulphuric acid. 
The compoum ofi%on } (green 

vitriol, i 
Illustration. 1 ( ' peculiar pro- 

ringent principle 
rk, green ti 
Lck dye for hats, 

cloth 

ms th 



OF THE 3IETALS. 59 

ink with which we write. The more oxygen the iron 
contains, the deeper the black produced. Hence ink 
becomes blacker after it is written, for its constituent, 
iron, continues to absorb its oxygen from the air, un- 
til it be wholly saturated. 

2. With the Prussic acid, sulphate of iron forms a 
beautiful blue. This is the Prussian or Berlin blue. 

o. Steel filing's and sulphur mixed, and moistened 
with water, in a few hours become hot, the water is 
decomposed, its oxygen corrodes the iron, and converts 
the sulphur into acid, while its hydrogen flies off in the 
form of gas. The heat increases sometimes to such a 
degree, as to cause the mixture to burst into flames. 
This has been considered as an artificial volcano. 

Observation 1. It is the* presence of iron which give^ 
to Chalybeate springs their medicinal virtue. 

2. "The knowledge, treatment, and modification of 
iron, in its different states, by rendering it the most 
useful of metals, have great influence on the happiness 
and power of nations. The perfection of iron works 
follows the degree of civilization of man." Iron is the 
only metal which could not be dispensed with in the 
present condition of the arts. 

15S. Tin is a metal extremely malleable, 
hut it is inferior to most others in ductility. 

159. It unites or combine? with almost all 
the other metals. 

160. When mixed with copper in different 
proportions, it forms bronze, bell-metal, and 
the material of which cannons are made. 

Observation. The addition of a certain portion of sil- 
ver in the formation of bell-metal, is believed to add 
much to its sonorousness. 

161. It is also used for tinning various me- 
tals, to prevent their tarnish or oxidation. 

Experiment 1. A piece of clean iron, as a knife-blade, 



GO OF THE METALS. 

being" dipped in melted tin, comes out perfectly t< 

!• the surface of a plate of copper, it 

will us ppearancoi becoming* complete!} 

ith a coating of the tin. 

ilvanic experiments, in the construction of 

ompound plates of zinc and copper, union is ef- 

I by a solder of simple tinfoil, interposed between 

o metals, and then heated. 

4. The action of fire being continued after tin be- 
comes fused, it oxidates. This oxide of tin is termed 

or putty, and is used for the purpose of giving a 
high polish to glass. 

5. Fused at the blow-pipe with glass, the white oxide 
of tin, or tutty, yields a white enamel. 

6. Nitric acid oxidates tin* (in leaves or foil,) very 
greedily, and allows it to precipitate in the form of 
white oxide of tin. 

7. Sulphuric acid dissolves the nitrate of tin, which 
has the property of being again precipitated by water. 

Observation 1. The scarlet-dye, or bright red of the 

pon the solution of tin in the nitro-mu 

tc acid. Tliis solution is of the highest utility in the 

art of dyeing generally; the oxide precipitated from it 

S er of union between the colouring, mat - 

ind the stuff. It also gives permanency and brif 

liancv to colon ; 

2. " it is that tin, when combined witl 

other met;. my excepted, forms an alloy o 

Ay than the heavier metal with 
which it is com i 

162. Lead is a heavy metal, of a pale, livid. 
white colour. It is the softest and least elas- 
tic of all tjie solid mci 

163. By the joint action of heat and air, 
lead becomes oxidated, and exhibits differenl 
colours, according to the proportion of oxy< 
gen with which it may have combined. 



OF THE METALS. 61 

Illustration. Massicot, litharge, and minium, or red 
lead, are oxides of lead, but these three colours contain 
»nt proportions of oxygen. Massicot the least, and 
minium the largest portion. 

Experiment 1. Litharge, urged by a strong fire, melts 
into a yellow glass. 

2. Lead, exposed in thin slips to the fumes of vine- 
gar, or the acetic acid, is converted at the surface into 
white flakes, which when ground is the purest white 
lead, or flake-white. 

Observation 1. Lead is commonly found mineralized 
with sulphur, forming sulphuret of lead, or galena. 

2. The oxides of lead are used in glass-works, to fa- 
cilitate the fusion of the glass, to render it heavier, 
softer, and more fit to be cut or polished. 

3. The oxides of lead being fused with carbonaceous 
matter, as on charcoal at the blow-pipe, are revived. 

4. All the oxides of lead are soluble in vinegar, and 
the compound has a sweet styptic astringency, much 
disguised, and known with difficulty by the palate when 
tasted. Hence, to wines having become sour, it is not 
unusual to add flake-white, which neutralizes the acid; 
but such wines, when drank, are highly detrimental to. 
the human frame. Palsies, lock-jaw, and dreadful af- 
fections of the bowels, are among the train of evils 
which such disguised and baneful beverages occasion. 
It is also a notorious fact, that workmen, accustomed 
to the grinding of colours, are sooner or later afflicted 

ith the disease termed painter's cholic. 
164. Lead mixed with tin, forms pewter, 
which has different degrees of hardness, ac- 
cording to the proportions employed. 

Observation. Lead has various uses in the arts. It 
is used for pipes to convey liquids, for cauldrons, the 
inside of boxes, &c. and it is sometimes alloyed for lin- 
ing tea chests: houses are also covered with it; and it 
is employed for the purpose of making shot and bullets, 

F 



62 OF THE METALS. 

Note. It is a customary, but fraudulent practice, to mix 

th tin for tinning culinary utensils. 

"). Nickel is a whitish metal, found in 

Germany, but is most abundant in China. 

ration. The Chinese call it white copper, and 
form it into utensils; but it has never been applied to 
any useful purpose in Great Britain or America. 

166. ZinC) or Spelter, (as it is called by 
the English workmen) is found in the stone 
or substance called calamine. 

167. Zinc is of a shining bluish white 
colour, and has been recently used, when 
beat out into plates, for covering the roofs of 
houses. 

168. When mixed with copper this metal 
is used in making brass, pinchbeck, &c. It 
is also the base of white vitriol, which is a^ 
sulphate of zinc. 

169. When made red hot, it emits a bril-j 
liant bluish light; and white flakes resem-J 
bling wool or snow, ascend into the air. 

; : beautiful bine stars, exhibited 

orks, are produced by mixing- zinc in filing's, with] 

gunpov I 

1 70. Antimony is a metal of a dusky whitcj 
colour, procured in Hungary and Norway. 

171. In its metallic slate, it is used, wheiJ 
ed with lead, for making printer's typesi 

hich it imparts hardne 

172. When in the slate of an oxide, it i\ 
used in medicine, but requires to be appliec 



OF THE METALS. 63 

Experiment 1. Wfcen exposed to heat sufficient to 
melt it in the open air, it shews its combustible nature, 
and emits a white smoke, which when condensed, is 
called the silver or snow of antimony, which is an oxide 
of that metal. 

2. If this oxide be excluded from the external air, 
and fused, it assumes a glassy appearance, and is called 
the glass of antimony. 

3. To a boiling solution of pure potash, add some of 
the crude antimony of the shops, which consists of sul- 
phur and antimony. The alkali combines with all the 
sulphur, and part of the metal. Neutralize the alkali 
by the addition of the sulphuric acid, and it will unite 
with a larger proportion of sulphur than it was origi- 
nally combined with, and fall down in the form of 
golden sulphur of antimony, in which state it has been 
in high esteem as a medicine. 

Observation. The principal uses of antimony are in 
speculum metal, type-metal, and the finer sort of pew- 
ter. It combines readily with other metals, gold ex- 
cepted. 

173. Bismuth is not malleable like other 
metals, but crumbles into powder when struck 
with a hammer. 

174. It is found mixed with the ores of the 
metal called cobalt, in the mines of Saxony. 

175. When mixed or alloyed with some 
other metals, it renders them so easily fused, 
that thfe composition will melt in boiling 
water. 

Experiment. Melt four ounces of bismuth, two and a 
half ounces of lead, and an ounce and a half of tin to- 
gether, in an iron ladle, over the fire. When the com- 
position cools, tea-spoons, or other articles, may be 
shaped out of it, and if put into hot tea, or water/they 
will be immediately melted into a solid mass, and fall 
to the bottom of the tea-cup. 



6 J OF THE METAL-. 

incd with Jqad, bismuth is, like 
untim type. 

\H>. Arsenic is sometimes found native, 
but generally combined with other metals. 

177. Under every form it is poisonous, 
although it is sometimes used in medicine in 

11 quantities. 

178. It burns in the fire with a bright 
flame, and emits an odour resembling that of 
garlic. 

179. When mixed with copper, it forms a 
white metal, which is capable of being plated 
with silver, to great advantage. 

ISO. When combined with sulphur, it fur- 
nishes a variety of valuable dyes, or colours. 
Illustration 1. Orpi?nent 9 or the substance from which 
the bt- autiful colour called King's Yellovj is made, is 
Bulphuret of arsenic. 

2. Realgar (the dye-stuff which yields a dark orange, 
s a similar compound of arsenic. Both are 
used by dyers and painters. 

of the preparations of this meta?, 
;li degree noxious; tl 
the presence of arsenic, in man] 

may even, 

but if any suspicion 

, t^e white 

■senic. — 

Iphate 

d in w 

mghts. 

noxic 
2 i 



OF THE METALS. 65 

lof several alloys, for the formation of specula. It is used 
Jin making- small shot, to render the lead more capable 
lof running- into granules. It is also employed, like ma- 
ny other metals, in dyeing' and calico printing-: it enters 
into the composition of some sorte of glass, and forms 
several excellent pig-ments. It is the basis of white 
enamel, as also of the faces of watches in general. 

181. Cobalt is a greyish brittle metal, re- 
sembling steel. 

1S2. It is used in the state of an oxide 
only, for making colours. 

Illustration 1. The blue colours given to earthen- 
ware, porcelain, glass, and enamels, is produced by the 
application of zaffre, or oxide of cobalt, wrought up 
into a kind of paint. It is also called smalt by painters. 

2. The muriatic acid dissolves the oxide of cobalt 
with great facility. This solution is of a sub-red, and, 
when evaporated, affords pale green crystals, soluble 
in spirits of wine, and decompoundable by fire. 

3. This solution, as well as the aquaregia solution of 
cobalt, possesses the singular property, that when di- 
luted with water, and used as an ink, the letters are in- 
visible, but appear of a beautiful green colour when 
heated. This sympathetic ink is best prepared by add- 
ing culinary salt to a solution of nitrate of cobalt, for 
thus the nitric acid is changed into an aqua regia, and 
the nitrate of soda, produced at the same time, prevents 
the paper from being corroded. 

4. Ammonia dissolves zaffre, or the ore of cobalt, 
ancj the result is a liquor of a fine red. 

183. Manganese is only found in the state 
of a black oxide. 

184. It is never applied to any use in its 
metallic state, but is used to produce an oxide. 

185. It contains forty per cent, of oxygen, 

F2 



OF THE METALS. 

h it can be made to give out by the ap* 
plication of heat. 

Illustration. In the highest state of 6: nanga- 

nese, like most o *, is not soluble in ac 

you pour tlie nitric :icid upon it, I ire no 

action, but if the oxide be- mixed with 

sugar, which can combine with a por- 
tion of oxygen, it is then dissolved. If the sulphuric 
acid be poured upon it, and heat be applied, the ex- 
of oxygen is driven off, in consequence of an at- 
traction between the acid and the less oxidated metal, 
and the sulphate of manganese is produced. If the mu- 
riatic acid be emplo\ ed, part of the acid combines with 
the excess of oxygen, and forms the oxymuriatic acid, 
and part forms the muriate of manganese, with the 
oxide thus rendered capable of saline combination. 

186. Black oxide of manganese is used to 
produce oxygen gas, or to add a higher de- 
gree of acidity to substances already acid, by 
communicating to them a stronger portion of 
■:en, or the acidifying principle. 

Wkalics precipitate a light coloured 
oxide from these salts, which attracts oxygen, and be- 
comes dark by exposure to the air. /• o C om- 
anganese, and, if the fixed alkalies are used 
form the mineral chamacleon, 

Experiment. Mix an oun< dered nitre, with 

six drachms of the black oxide of manganese, and ex- 
pose them to a red heat in a crucible, until no more 
n is produced; there then remains a dark-colour- 
for the variety of colours it pro- 
• hot water are poured 
on it. Puta on ,11 .j i • 1, pour 

in a little v 

and th 

purpli s dphuret of hme dc- 

colour, by robbing it of its oxygen. 



OF THE METALS. 67 

Observation 1. Oxide of manganese is used in the. 

glass manufactories, to clear the glass of its green or 

yellow hue. For this reason it has been called glass- 

i *s soap. It is likewise used to give a violet hue 

to glass and porcelain. 

2. Iron is always found in the materials from which 
glass is manufactured, and in a low state of oxidation 
gives to the glass a green tinge. But if it is at a higher 
degree of oxidizement, it either does not enter into the ' 
fusion with the ingTedients of the glass, or at least it 
does not communicate colour. Manganese, on the con- 
trary, in the state of a black oxide, gives a violet co- 
lour; while, when reduced to the white oxide, the 
glass is colourless. In adding, therefore, a proper quan- 
tity of the black oxide to the glass, it yields its oxygen 
to the iron, which it brings to a high state of oxidation ; 
while the manganese passes to the state of white oxide; 
and thus each metal is in that state in which it does not 
communicate colour. 

187. Chrome exists in the state of an acid, 
combined with an oxide of lead, in the red- 
lead ore of Siberia. It derives its name from 
the splendid and numerous colours which it 
presents in its saline combinations. 

188. Chromote of iron is said to have been 
discovered in France and in Siberia. 

189. The combinations of chromic acid 
with metallic oxides, in general exhibit the 
most beautiful colours, which are well adapt- 
ed to form the finest paints. 

Illustration. With the oxide of lead it produces an 
orange yellow of various shades; with mercury, a ver- 
milion red; and with zinc and bismuth, a yellow. 

1 90. Chrome, combined with iron, has lately 



68 OF NITROGEN, OR AZOT. 

been found in the neighbourhood of Balti- 
mor 

191. The rest of the metals enumerated in 
the beginning of this section, have never yet 
been applied to any useful purpose, and their 
chemical properties are but slightly known. 

The specific gravity of platina is as 23, water 
being 1 an ty. — T le specific gravity of gold 19 — of silver 
—of mercury ! 3 .-;,..— of lend 1 1-^.— of copper 
8 T 5 0> — of iron 7-fo, — o* tin 7-^ — of zinc 7 — of anti- 
mony 6^,— of bismuth 9^> — nickel 8^-, — arsenic 
.—cobalt 7 T S . — and of manganese 7. 

OF NITROGEN, or AZOT. 

192. This is the basis of the nitric acid: it 
exhibits itself in its simplest state as a gas. 

N". B. Though the term azot be here set down as 
synonymous with nitrogen, yet it is rejected as equivo- 
cal: to j, winch when respired alone, does not 
maintain life, may he called azoJ 

193. Nitrogen combines with oxygen, form- 
ing two oxides and an acid. 

194. In the state of gas it forms about 
seventy-eight parts in the hundred of atmos- 
pheric air, (including one per cent, of carbo- 
nic acid gas,) and is that part of the common 

supports neither flame nor animal 

It may be readily obtained from at- 
pheric air, by removing the oxygenous 
portion. 



OF NITROGEN, OR AZOT. 6l* 

Example 1. If a portion of iron filings and sulphur, 
moistened with water, be put into a flask filled with 
common air, the oxygen will be absorbed in a day or 
two by the metal and the sulphur, while the nitrogen 
gas will remain. 

2. The same effect will be produced by phosphorus 
alone, inclosed in a similar vessel, along with common 
air. The phosphorus will be oxidized or converted mto 
phosphoric acid, and the nitrogen gas will remain be- 
hind. 

196. Nitrogen gas is considerably lighter 
than common air, and consequently much 
lighter' than oxygen gas. 

197. As nitrogen gas is equally privative 
of life, and the maintenance of flame, so, 
when it is possible to exclude the external 
atmosphere, damage by fire might often be 
prevented. 

Observation. It is from this circumstance, that the 
most effectual and instantaneous method, as well as the 
safest, for extinguishing fire in a chimney, is to place a 
wet blanket before the fire-place or opening at the bot- 
tom, so as to exclude the atmospheric air. N. B. Were 
sliding plates (made air tight) introduced in the origi- 
nal construction of our fire places, so that the opening 
might be closed when occasion required, they would 
form a very great safe-guard, and prevent numerous 
accidents. 

198. Nitrogen gas was the mephitic air of 
the ancients. One hundred cubic inches of 
this gas weigh 30 2-3 grains, while one hun- 
dred cubic inches of oxygen gas weigh" 34 1-2 
grains. It does not prevent vegetation; it 
i«5 evolved from animal and vegetable bodies; 



70 OP PHOSPHOR!^. 

and with oxyg sxposed to the electric 

spark, it forms the nitric arid. 

L99*. Nitrogen unites with oxygen in two 
states, — in the mixture of which the atmos- 
pheric air is composed, and in the chemical 
combination of the nitric acid. 

200. Nitrous acid was formerly supposed 
to he nitrogen, oxygenated in a less degree 
than the nitric acid; but it is now well ascer- 
tained to be no more than mere nitric acid, 
holding nitrous gas in solution. 

tes singularly in its colour, ac- 
cording- to y of nitrous gas held in solution. 

201. Nitrogen gas extinguishes flame, 
which can alone be maintained by oxygen 
gas, or by gases which contain it. 

202. There are two combinations only of 
nitrogen and oxygen in a gaseous state; ni- 

id nitrous gas. 

203. Nitrous aci'd is the aqua fortis of 
com 

204. Nitrous gas is formed of fifty-seven 
per cent, of oxygen, and forty-three of nitro- 

in contact with common air it 
absorbs i >'l visible va- 

pours and iced. 

'HORUS. 

do- 
eomp F animate. It is a yel- 



OF PHOSPHORUS. 71 

lowish, transparent substance, like bees-wax, 
and fuses in water slightly heated. 

Experiment 1. If a bit of phosphorus, the size of a 
millet seed, be put upon the outside of a Florence flask, 
filled with hot water, the phosphorus spontaneously 
kindles. 

2. When moderately heated, phosphorus burns ra- 
pidly, with a brilliant light, in common air; and, as in 
other combustions the oxygen and inflammable sub- 
stances unite, so in this, the oxygen and phosphorus 
combine and form an acid. 

3. Dissolve phosphorus in oil, the face and hands will 
shine when rubbed with it. If dissolved in aether, and 
poured in small quantities on hot water, a beautiful ex- 
periment is exhibited. 

4. Take the size of a large pin's head of phosphorus, 
and wipe it upqn blotting paper, then put it into the 
middle of a piece of dry cotton; hammer it,' and it will 
set it on fire. Paper, linen, &c. may be fired in the 
same manner. 

5. Put a little phosphorus into a small phial, melt the 
phosphorus, by putting the phial in warm water, and 
after rolling it about until it adheres to the sides of the 
phial, then cork it closely. If a common match be then 
introduced into the bottle with some degree of pres- 
sure, it will inflame immediately upon being taken out.* 

Observation. A very slow combustion of phosphorus 
continually goes on, very perceptible in the dark. N. B . 
Phosphorus derives its name from this quality. 

206. If exposed to common air, or oxygen 
gas, when gently heated, phosphorus melts, 
takes fire, and burns, producing a bright white 
flame, with intense heat. 

Observation. Its combination with oxygen gas, fur- 
nishes results different from all other combustibles, viz. 
phosphoric and phosphorous acid, also an oxide of phos- 
ohorus. 



72 iMiosnioi! 

Experiment* Into a retort that will hold about a pint, 
put half a pint of water, and then add the size of a pea 
of pho Place it over a lamp, and when i 

■mbling sky-rockets, will be seen 

»out the water, in a most beautiful manner, 

T the retort. If the lamp is 

withdrawn when the water boils, a curious appearance, 

lurora Borcalis> is seen at the surface. 

If the heat is continued, a stream of light is seen to 

from the mouth of the retort, which returns into 

the vessel when the heat is withdrawn. 

207. Phosphorus combines with oxygen 
at a lower temperature than most other sub- 
stances; whence its great attractive power for 
•rinciple. 

Even the heat produced by friction is 

Put a piece of phosphorus 'mto a quill, and 

-ton the wall of a dark room. The words 

i. will appear as if brilliantly illuminated. 

' ;lii in this experiment to avoid touch- 

he phosphorus with the bare fingers, as a burn 

rice is accompanied with more than or- 

(y combustion, phosphorus attracts 
rom the atmosphere, and becomes 
cid. 

; iiule by a spontaneous 
ticks on 
Jian empty 
gen and moisture 
!e in the state of 
of heat is some- 
phosphorus ; to 
enclosed in a glass 
tube, nd be covered with u 

glass .- • stand 



OF PHOSPH0R¥S. 73 

in a plate of water. The acid produced will weigh 
about three times as much as the phosphorus employed. 

209. Phosphorus, in an uncombined state, 
when taken internally, is poisonous. Ani- 
mals have been killed by merely drinking 
the water in which some newly made phos- 
phorus had been washed. 

Miscellaneous Experiments. 1. Mix one part of flowers 
of sulphur or brimstone, with eight parts of phosphorus, 
and djp a small piece of wood or match into the mix- 
ture. Rub the end of this match against a piece of 
cork or wood, and a flame will be immediately pro- 
duced. In this way, the phosphoric match bottles, and 
German boxes are made. 

2. Burn phosphorus in common air, it flames with 
brilliance and volumes of white smoke arise. Condense 
these in a glass tumbler, moistened with water, and 
show, by rinsing it out with the infusion of litmus, that 
they are acid. The residuum is of an orange com- 
plexion, and is phosphorus united with a small portion of 
oxygen. Exposure to the air, converts it into phos- 
phoric acid. 

3. This experiment is more brilliant in oxygen gas. 
Burn some phosphorus upon a dish in a jar containing 
oxygen gas, the air becomes diminished in quantity, 
and the phosphorus is converted to phosphoric acid, 
and will redden vegetable blues. 

4. Phosphoric acid may also be obtained by decom- 
posing nitric acid, by means of phosphorus. If small 
pieces be thrown into a strong acid, the decomposition 
is dangerous, attended with violent and beautiful flashes 
of light; but if the acid be weak the decomposition is 
more gradual. 

210. Phosphorus easily combines with sul- 
phur. When the phosphorus exceeds the sul- 
phur, it is called phosphuret of sulphur; and 

G 



74 OF SULPHUR. 

when the sulphur predominates, it is called 
sulphuret of phosphorus. 

911. When the phosphoric acid is com- 
bined with any substance, it is then called a 
phosphai 

2 1 2. Phosphate of lime is the state in which 

•phorus exists in bones, and from which 

it is extracted after they are calcined or burnt. 

OF SULPHUR. 

B13. Sulphur, or brimstone, is found in 
most abundance combined with metals. 

214. It is obtained by roasting or exposing 
metals to heat, when the sulphur flies upwards 

' or is sublimed. 

215. Sulphur also exists in vegetables, and 
it is emitted from animal substances, in a state 
of putrefaction, combined with hydrogen. 

S. Sulphur has a strong attraction for 
oxygen, and burns upon the application of 
flame. 

217. When heated sufficiently to take fire, 
it absorbs a certain portion of oxygen from 
the atmn and is converted into sul- 

phi id. 

3. When burnt in oxygen gas, it absorbs 
i ion of oxygen, and be- 
comes sulphuric 

ulphur unites with the alkalies, pot- 



OF EARTHS. 4 5 

-esh, and soda, forming hard substances of a 
brown colour, commonly called livers of sul- 
phur, but more properly alkaline su Ip h ure ts. 

lllvst ration 1. Sulphur unites with iron when melt- 
ed. It is used for copying* gems. 

2. Sulphur, when fused and slowly cooled, crys- 
tallizes. 

3. Sulphur readily combines with the alkalies in the 
humid way, by mere boiling. The muriate of ammonia 
or sal ammoniac and lime, boiled with sulphur, m a cap- 
sule, will combine with the lime, and render it soluble 
in water. 

220. In this state, and combined with hy- 
drogen, sulphur enters into the composition 
of the Harrowgate and other mineral waters, 
to which it gives a smell resembling that of 
rotten eggs. 

Observation. Sulphur is a substance most useful in 
the arts. It is employed in the bleaching of stuffs, and 
in the preparation of silks; and it enters into the consti- 
tuency of gunpowder. It furnishes sulphuric acid by 
combustion, and is often employed in manufactories. 
By means of the sulphuric, we may separate the nitric 
and muriatic acids from their combinations. Sulphur 
and sulphuric acids are therefore continually employed 
in chemistry, and very often in pharmacy. 

OF EARTHS. 

221. Earths are inflammable, inodorous, 
generally insipid, friable, and sparingly solu- 
ble in water. They are very refractoi 
the fire. 

-'. The names of the earths are as fol- 



76 9E EARTHS 

1. Lime. 

2. Alt-mini: or Argil, which is pure clay. 

3. Silex, or pure flint. 

4. Magnesia. 

5. Barytes. 

6. Strontites. 

7. Ittria. 

8. Glucine. 

9. Zircon. 

223. Of these, Lime, Silex, and Alumine ; 
are the most abundant. 

Observation. The earths have latterly been consid- 
ered metallic oxides. On this subject professor Cooper 
remarks — " As to the introduction of the earths [and 
alkalies] among the metals, I have seen and made po- 
tassium too often, not to be aware of the metallic ap- 
pearance of that substance — of its apparent amalgama- 
tion with mercury— of its attract) on for oxygen, and the 
probability that caustic potash is the oxide of potassium. 
But these characters are not peculiar to these metal- 
loids: the lustre of pyrites, and of the Chinese yellow 
orpiment, is as metallic and as brilliant as potassium. 
But for accuracy's sake let us settle what we mean 
b> a metal, before we call these substances metals. 
Hitherto the leading feature of a metal has been its 
weight ; but the alkaline metalloids are the lightest oi 
all sohds — Hitherto, the oxide of a metal has been 
deemed, without a contradictory instance, lighter than 
the metal itself; here it is heavier — Hitherto we have 
found every metal apt to combine, and form an alloy 
v other metal ; in the present instance 
t say it has alloyed with. any thing but 
rv. I am not prepared to deny any of the facts 
\ work we should alter our 
definitions at least to Buit the cai 

f. to Tfiomson's Chwn. 



OP EARTHS, 77 

224. Lime is generally combined with 
:arbonic acid, in lime-stone, marble, and 

chalk, and is essential to the constitution of 
marls. 

225. The shells of oysters, lobsters, and 
other sea animals, as well as coral, and other 
marine productions, are chiefly composed of 
lime. 

226. Lime is also the chief ingredient in 
the shells of eggs, and in those of snails. 

7, Marl is only valued in proportion 
as it contains this earth. 

228. The compounds containing lime al- 
ready referred to, are chiefly such as also con- 
tain the carbonic acid; they are therefore, the 
carbonates of lime. 

229. Lime is obtained pure from limestone, 
&c. by the application of heat or caloric, or 
by burning, which drives off the carbonic 
acid. It is then called quick-lime. 

Illustration. If carbonate of lime be exposed to a 
strong" heat, in a crucible, carbonic acid and water are 
disengaged, equal to 40 per cent, of its weight. The 
residuum is lime, or as it is called, from its caustic and 
corrosive quality, quick-lime. 

Observation. Quick-lime resists the action of high de- 
grees of heat, though an excellent flux of the other 
earths. It is remarkable for its attraction for water. 

Experiment. If boiling water be poured upon it in 
the dark, it exhibits a phosphorescent light. 

230. Lime, after being burnt, has a strong 
attraction or affinity for water; and when it 



78 OP EARTHS. 

has imbibed a proper quantity of this fluid, 
it is called slacked lime. 

Illustration. Cold water, when sprinkled on it, causes 
it to swell, heat, crack, and crumble to an impalpable 
powder. In this state it is termed slacked-lime. 

Experiment 1. 1000 ounces of lime are perfectly dry*, 
after having* absorbed 222 of water 

-lacked lime dissolves in water, in the proportion 
of one to 600 parts by weight: hence lime water is per- 
fectly transparent, and even a brilliant fluid. 

3. Lime-water possesses alkaline properties; for when 
poured into blue vegetable infusions, they turn green. 

4. Exposed to the atmosphere, lime attracts carbonic 
acid, ; n weight, and loses all its character as 

►arate body. 

5. Lime-water, mixed with mild alkali, in solution, 
robs the alkali of its carbonic acid, precipitates in a 
white powdery form, the alkali being left \ cry pure. 

Observation. The heat which is yielded during the 
operation of slacking, is derived from the water, not 
the lime. It is the heat of liquidity rendeied percep- 
Luring the action of slacking; for lime, properly 
slackecK : s perfectly dry: the water is therefore in 
concrete state, at least such portion as remains com- 
bined with the lime. 

231. Lime unites with other acids. Plas- 
ter of Paris, or gypsum, is a combination of 
Sulphuric acid. 

;ii used in hus- 
i from the lime- 
stone d to, for burning does 

ving it of its con 
ttion, it b< 

trth, found in 
din //. ristic nan 



OF EARTHS. 79 

233. It abounds in all clays and argillace- 
ous earth. It gives a laminated texture to the 
fossils in which it is found. 

Observation. When pure, it is a fine white powder, 
smooth and soapy to the touch, adhering to the tongue. 
Alumine constitutes a large portion of the potter's and 
fuller's earth. It enters into the combination of the 
ruby and sapphire. It is employed in making the py- 
rometer of Wedgwood, in porcelain, and in the con- 
struction of furnaces, and especially in the manufacture 
of bricks and tiles. It is never found pure, though very 
abundant in the globe. 

234, Clays are found generally moist, in 
their natural state, on account of the great at- 
traction of alumine for water. 

rvation. It is this circumstance which constitutes 
alumine the basis of the art of pottery: an art which, 
has been brought to a high state of perfection in Eng- 
land, by the labours of one enlightened individual, Mr. 
I ood. 

5. Clay, when diffused, and wrought into 
a paste with water, is highly ductile and plas- 
tic; hut on heing exposed to intense heat, it 
becomes impenetrable to it. 

/'ration. Crucibles, retorts, glass-house pots, 
stone-ware, queen's ware, &c. refer to alumine as their 
>asis. 
236. Si/ex, or the earth of flints, is most 
abundantly found in that fossil. It scintil- 
lates with steel, which is" a distinguishing 

rty, dependent upon its extreme hard- 

%. It cuts glass like diamond; and is nearly 

st sand. The fluoric acid is its proper 

mum: it fuses also into a glass, with the bwacio 



80 OF EAR i 

and phosphoric acids. It is essential in the manufacture 
of glass, pastes, and tact it ions gems. 

237. Free-stone and gravel contain silex, 
but almost always united to foreign matter, 
and often to iron. 

23S. The stones so much admired under the 
name of pebbles, are also compounds of silex 
and other matters. 

Observation* These are wrought by the lapidary into 
various trinkets, seals, &c. much esteemed for their 
hardness and variegated tints, or grotesque fractures, 
when polished. There is an Egyptian pebble at the 
British Museum, which, being accidentally fractured, 
exhibited a very correct likeness of the celebrated and 
earliest British poet, Jeffery Chaucer, as appears by 
comparing it with an old painting on pannel, also in the 
collect, on. Scotch pebbles are also much admired. 
The agate is of this order. 

239. Porphyry, granite, whinstone, and 
basaltes, (which last composes the celebrated 
Giant's Causeway in Ireland, and FingaPs 
Cave in the island of StafTa,) have the silicious 
earth for thc^r basis. 

It is besides contained in quartz, and 

the business of the enameller depends greatly on its 

employment Under particular circumstances it be- 

- soluble even in water. This is known Jo those 

who ha\ e visited the Geysers or hot springs of Iceland. 

. . or white agate, is the natural deposit of si- 

om its aqueous solution. It is found in the ashes 

of most plants, and in the interior coating of the com- 

used for walking sticks, many of which are 

to strike fire with" steel. 

') The common black gun-flint belongs 



OP EARTHS. 81 

to silicious stones, and is always found in beds 
of chalk and lime-stone. 

241. Rock crystal exhibits silex in its pur- 
est natural state. 

Observation. Silex has the property of combining 
with fluor spar, and forming" a compound, which, though 
not sour, has by some modern writers been termed si- 
licated fluoric acid. "Let us alter our definitions," 
jays Professor Cooper, "and I will agree that silex is 
in acid; but while people will persuade themselves 
:hat acids are sour to the taste, they will not under- 
itand the mystery of calling- a piece of flint an acid." 

242. Magnesia is never found pure in na- 
ture, but is generally procured from the sul- 
phate of magnesia (Epsom salt) which exists 
in mineral springs. 

243. The mineral springs of Epsom for- 
merly supplied the 'greater part of what was 
used in commerce, from whence it derived 
its name. 

Observation* The substances talc, asbestos, amianthus, 
and steatites, are fossils which contain it. Magnesia olba 
of the shops is its carbonate, while pure magnesia i fe ge- 
nerally (but improperly) distinguished by the term cal- 
cined. 

Example 1. If we decompose the sulphate of mag- 
nesia, by adding the carbonate of potash, both in solu- 
tion, we obtain the carbonate of magn^ 

2. If we expose the carbonate of magnesia to a high 
heat, in a crucible, we shall obtain p.tre magpe- ; u — 
Illustration. For when exposed at a red heat, it be- 
comes deprived of its carbonic acid, and leases beb nd 
the white, tasteless, and nearly insoluble earth, ?nvg~ 
7iesia. 

n. It is chiefly used in medicine as an an- 



S2 OF EAUT1IS. 

tidote to acids, when the stomach by indigestion is suf- 
fering from such crudities. 

244. Barytes is the heaviest of the earths, 
and has its name from its weight. It is acrid, 
caustic, and possesses alkaline qualities. 

Observation. It is more soluble than the other earths, 
and possesses a greater affinity for acids, with which it 
is always combined. In medicine it can only be ex- 
hibited in a small quantity, on account of its poisonous 
quality. It has been employed as a powder for killing 
rats. 

Example. Pure barytes is soluble in water, and is ; 
test of the presence of sulphuric acid, to which, when 
its aqueous solution is added, a ponderous substance, 
in the form of an impalpable powder, is precipitated. 

245. ^Strontites, another earth is so named 
from the place in Scotland where it was found 
to exist in abundance. 

246. When pure, it is very like barytes in 
appearance, and has a bitter taste. No other 
substance in nature, tinges flame of a carmine 
colour. The crystals of its salts differ from 
those of barytes, and are also more soluble. 

Experiment 1. Dissolve a little of the muriate of 
strontites; add alcohol, kindle it, and beautiful red 
flames ascend. 

2. Or put a little of the salt upon a candle, and the 
carmine flame is instantly produced. 

Observation 1. Strontites is further remarkable for 
the brilliancy of the flume it exhibits when heated at 
the blow-pipe. 

2. 11 -, like the other earths, tenacity, fixity 

in fii solubility, freedom from odour 

does 

li recently dis< 



OF THE ALKALIES. 83 

n Sweden. It is characterized by the gene- 
•al properties of the other earths, differing in 
>ome few particulars. 

24S. Glucine is a constituent of some pre- 
vious stones. The emerald and beryl yield it. 

Experiment. Its sulphate, in solution* is remarkable 
or giving* a yellow precipitate when added to the infu- 
sion of the gall nut. 

249. Zircon is found in the hyacinth of 
eylon. 

Observation. It differs from silex and alumine, in be- 
ing soluble in the fixed alkalies. 

General Observation. Of the earths, those most 
generally useful, are lime, alumine, silex, magnesia, 
wid barytes. 

OF THE ALKALIES. 

250. The alkalies have a bitter and some- 
what burning taste. 

251. They change the blue juices of vegeta- 
bles, such as that of red cabbage, to a green. 

252. When combined with oil and water, 
they render these two substances capable of 
being mixed, or intimately blended with each 
other. 

253. The two fixed alkalies, or those which 
cannot be evaporated or changed, without be- 
ing made red hot, are called potash and soda, 

254. The third alkali is called ammonia, 
It is also known by the name of the volatile. 
alkali, because it becomes volatile or evapo- 
rated at the temperature of the atmosphere* 



84 OP THE ALKALIES. 

255. The alkalies have hitherto been re- 
garded as simple substances, but Mr. Davy, 
of the Royal Institution, has recently at- 
tempted to prove them composed of peculiar 
metals.* 

les have a stronger affinity with 
acids than metals, so that, generally speaking, 
the v will j recipitate them from their acid 
menstruums. 

Illustration. Oxv muriate of mercury in solution, has 
the oxide of that metal, which is its base, precipitated 
of a bright brown colour, by the addition of potash. 

257. Soda is procured by burning sea* 
plants, or sea-weed, as they are sometimes 
called : hence it is called the mineral alkali. 

258. Soda is the constituent principle in 
sea-salt, used -at table, the chemical name of 
which is muriate of soda. 

259. Soda is found in the natron beds of 
Egvpt, as also in Syria, and in India, in large 

, combined with carbonic acid. 

260. Potash is procured from the ashes of 
burnt wood, or oil tables; hence it is 

kali. 

Ii is also found in earths, and in the 

i it is imbibed by plants 

ii, while they are growing. 

hich potash and soda 
y similar. 

* On h : subject, seeextract from Professor Cooper, 
page 75. 



OF THE ALKALIES. 85 

Illustration They are used to melt along with silex, 
or pounded flint, in the formation of glass. In dyeing 
they are found to be of service in changing some 
vegetable colour, and in making others brighter. 
They are also used in washing and bleaching linen. 
When combined with oil or tallow, potash forms soft 
soap, and soda, hard soap. The greasy substance, 
mixed with these alkalies, prevents them from 
\g or corroding the hands, which they would do 
in their separate state. 

3. The potash of commerce is principally 
from Russia and America. 
Observation. In the north of Scotland different kinds 
of sea-weed are employed, and furnish, by a very rude 
process, an impure alkali named kelp. The saline mat- 
ter obtained from the same weeds, in France and 
Spain, is termed barilla, and contains much more alkali 
than the kelp. 

264. Potash and soda may be obtained 
sufficiently pure for most chemical purposes, 
by mixing a strong solution of either of them 
with a quantity of quick-lime. 

fflustratio?i. The lime having a stronger affinity for 
the carbonic acid, with which the fixed alkalies is gene- 
rally combined, unites to it and forms a carbonate of 
lime, which is precipitated, while the potash or soda is 
held in solution, and may, by filtration, be separated 
from it, and afterwards evaporated to dryness. 

265. When potash and soda are purified 
from foreign substances, they are called caus- 
tic alkalies, and in this statejf applied to the 
skin will almost instantly destroy it. 

266. Potash and soda are generally used 
)inbination . with carbonic acid. They 
;en carbonates, and from their corrosive 

H 



n.r THE A L KAMI 

properties being neutralized, are termed mild 
alkalies. 

Xiil. Ammonia, or volatile alkali, has a 
strong and very pungent smell. It is caustic, 
but does not corrode animal matter like pot- 
ash and soda. ^ 

268. Its most simple state is that of Amo- 
niacal gas, or vapour, which is lighter than at- 
mospheric air, but not so light as hydrogen gas. 

Experiment 1. To procure ammoniacal g-as, mix one 
ounce of pounded sal ammoniac, with two ounces of 
quick-lime: put the mixture into a Florence flask, and 
apply a lighted lamp or candle to the bottom, and am- 
moniacal gas will rise in abundance. 

2. Dissolve some sal ammoniac in water, and then 
heat the solution as above, when ammoniacal gas will 
also rise from the liquid ammonia. 

269. Ammonia is composed of two parts 
of hydrogen, to one of nitrogen or azot. 

270. AH animal and vegetable substances 

imoniawhen in a state of putrefaction. 

/. Ammonia is proi Listilling or 

burniii oilier animal substances; 

Med hartshorn. 
1 ammoniac, or muriate of ammo- 
rmed by combining ammoniacal gas 
* tie acid gas* 
al amnion': '<> give 

is, tin-plate 
'face of other metals, 
ied.* 

• discovered termed lithiu. It was first found 



87 



OF THE ACIDS. 

.272. The acids are substances which pro- 
duce the taste of sourness, when applied to 
the tongue. 

2^. Acids change the blue juices of vege- 
tables to a red. 

274. They combine with alkalies, earths, 
or metallic oxides, and form the compounds 
called salts. 

275. They owe their origin to the combi- 
nation of oxygen, or the acidifying principle, 
with certain substances. 

Observation 1. This class of bodies has been some- 
times divided into mineral, vegetable and animal acids, 
according' to the substances from which they were sup- 
posed to be extracted. ' As the same acid, however, is 
sometimes found to exist in each of the king-dons, a 
different mode of classification has been adopted: the 
composition and nature of the acid, when it will admit 
of it, being pointed out, instead of the class of bodies 
from which it is extracted. Thus, sulphuric acid is so- 
called because it is composed of sulphur and oxygen — 



in a mineral called petalite, and has since been de- 
tected in some other substances. In its caustic quali- 
ties, and in its chang:n^the blue colours of vegetables 
to green,«it resembles potash and soda; but it is disen- 
able from them by its difficult solubility in water; 
affording deliquescent salts with muriatic and 
nitric acids, and*by its possessing the power of neu- 
much greater quantity of the different acids 
'ian cither of those alkalies. 






88 OF ACIUs. 

carbonic acid because composed of carbon and oxy- 
gen, &c. 

2. In cases w here the acid has a compound base, 
from which the name could not readily be derived, it 
is then generally taken from the subsfcince of which it 
is principally formed; as the gallic acid, from galls; the 
camplioric acid, from camphor, &c. 

27G. Acids arise either from combustion 
or oxidation, and such bodies as fornRcids 
during these operations, are denominated 
acidifiable bases. 

Observation 1. Jf an acidifiable basis be perfectly sa- 
turated with oxygen, the acid, thus produced, is said 
to be perfect $ but if the basis predominate, the acid is 
said to be imperfect. 

2. Modern chemists distinguish the first state by the 
syllable ic, and the latter by ous. Thus we have the 
sulphuric and sulphurous acids, the phosphoric and 
phosphorous acids. 

3. If oxygen be combined with the acidifiable basis 
in so small a proportion that the compound body does 
not indicate any acid property, it is simply called an 
oxide. 

277. Sulphuric acid, or oil of vitriol, is 
procured by burning sulphur, in contact with 
oxygen. 

278. The sulphuric acid is a very heavy 
and corrosive liquid. It is destitute of co- 
lour or smell, but has a very acid taste. 

279. When sulphuric acid is united with 
earths, metals, or alkalies, they are called 
sulphates. 

Illustration. Lime, when dissolved in this acid, is 
sulphate of lime. Iron, in the same state, is c: 
sulphate of iron; and potash or soda, treated 
lar way, become sulphates of potash, &c. 



OF AClDS. 89 

280. The sulphuric acid, in the state of 
ras, has a strong suffocating smell, but it is 
easily absorbed by water, and then forms 
iquid sulphurous or sulphuric acid. 

251. Muriatic acid is obtained by distil- 
ation from sea salt. 

252. In the state of gas, in which it is pro- 
cured, it has % pungent suffocating smell, but 

sily absorbed by watejjfwhen it becomes 
iquid muriatic acid. 

253. Muriatic acid has not as yet been de- 
composed, and it is therefore considered by 
some chemists as a simple substance. 

Observation. Muriatic acid has been considered by 
nany chemists a simple substance: but from the late 
:xperiments of professor Davy, he has pronounced it 
i compound of hydrogen and oxymuriatic acid. Far- 
mer experiments however are necessary to fully esta- 
blish the fact. 

284. When united with various substances, 
t forms the salts called muriates. 

Illustration. Common table-salt is called muriate of 
,oda, because when decomposed, it is found to consist 
jf soda and muriatic acid. By similar combinations, 
miriates of lime, &c. are formed. 

285. By the addition of oxygen to the mu- 
^iatic acid, it forms oxymuriatic acid. 

Observation 1. Professor Davy differs from the com- 
non opinion respecting oxymuriatic acid. He contends 
hat it is a simple body, which, from its green colour, 
he terms chlorine: that in the process for obtaining this 
chlorine from muriatic acid, hydrogen is disengaged; 
which combining with the oxygen liberated from the 
metallic oxide use'd in the process, forms water; and 



that in the re -formation of muriatic acid, tin- 
that is driven off arises from the decomposition of W 
ter, which, as he supposes, is always present? the h 
drogen of which unites to the chlorine, and forms m 
riatic acid. 

2. This ingenious hypothesis of professor Davy ap 
pears to explain many of the operations in which o.\\ 
muriatic acid is produced. I5ut there are a few exc< p 
tions so striking*, that they render his theory extreme \\ 
doubtful, and justify the opinion formerly enterta | 
that the substance ^ich he terms chlorine, is 
muriatic acid combined with oxygen. 

3. The following' experiment of Murray is to tin 
point. He mixed " equal measures of carbonic oxid< 
and hydrogen gases, with two measures and a half oi 
oxymuriatic acid gas, each previously dried, exposing 
the mixture to light; after 24 hours, tlie peculiar colon; 
of the oxymuriatic acid g*as had disappeared, more thai 
half the gas was instantly absorbed by water, and wh 
muriatic acid gas, and the, residuary gas copiously pre 
cipitated lime-water, and was carbonic acid gas." 

4. If in this experiment, the oxymuriatic acid g a 
been, as contended for by Davy, a simple substance 
uncombincd with oxygen, neither the water nor the car 
bonic acid Ited from the process, couh 
have been formed; fo] ride and hydrogci 
could only become changed by the addition of oxygen 
and no substance in tl could have afforded i 
except it was found in the oxymuriatic acid. (See pp 
114 — 117, for a further illustration of this subject.) 

286. The gas produce*! from oxymuriatic 
acid is so suffocating that it cannot be breathed 
without great injury. 

7. Oxymuriatic acid discharges or ta 
out vegetable colo 1 

nation 1. ordinary property of the 

oxymuriatic acid, cither in the gaseous form, or whei: 



OF ACIDS. 91 

p ith water, has led to its application in the art 
of bleaclung. The cloth to be whitened is to be pre- 
pared rirst by steeping" it in warm water for some hours. 
hi order to take up such part of the colouring matter 
as may be soluble. It is then boiled in alkaline ley 
prepared from twenty parts of water and one of potash, 
rendered more active by having been mixed with 1-3 
of lime. After sufficient boiling it is washed with wa- 
ter, and put into close wooden troughs, containing 
the oxymuriatic acid united with water; in which it is 
allowed to steep for three or four hours, pressing the 
cloth frequently, and exposing its surface to the action 
of the liquor. It is thus alternately exposed to the 
action of the alkaline ley, and the oxymuriatic acid, 
till its colouring matter is completely extracted, or un- 
til it is sufficiently bleached; which requires in general 
from eight to ten immersions, according to the nature 
and coarseness of the cloth, cotton requiring fewer im- 
mersions than linen. After this process, the linen or 
cotton is rubbed strongly with soft soap in warm wa- 
ter: this renders the surface more smooth and uniform, 
and takes away the smell of oxymuriatic acid. The 
cloth is again washed; and lastly, it is* immersed for a 
t short time in water, in which from a 60th to a 100th 
part of sulphuric acid has been dissolved. The cloth, 
by this means, acquires a much finer whiteness, from 
the sulphuric acid dissolving any possible remains of 
colouring matter, as well as a small quantity of iron 
and calcareous earth, contained in all vegetable sub- 
stances, or even deposited in the cloths from the alka- 
line leys. 

2. The great difficulty which attended the use of the 
oxymuriatic acid in whitening of linen, arose from the 
suffocating odour, which rendered it extremely difficult 
to work with it in open vessels. But it was discovered, 
that an alkali in a great measure removed this odr 
at least prevented its injurious effects: and an improve- 
ment, by Tennant of Glasgow, lias not only removed 



92 Otf ACIDS. 

this difficulty, but has put it in tli 
manufacturer to avail himself of the b ^ing 

from the use of > ; He 

found that the oxymiritatic ac 

bining with dry lime; and that by dissolving a certain 

proportion of this compound in wa rnied the 

; liquor, dispossessed of its suffocating odour. 

! can easily be carried to a distance, and 

the manufacturer need not prepare it himself. 

rhe combination is formed by introducing the 
oxymuriatic gas through leaden tubes, into slacked 
lime pr< pared from chalk, by which it is absorbed. 
Solutions of this are prepared of different* strengths, 
he purpose to which they are to be ap- 
plied ngth being ascertained by the hydrome- 
ecessarj todestroythe colour 
of a diluted solution of indigo in sulphuric acid. 

-union mode of procuring the oxymuriatic 
acid for bleaching", is to mix 2-7th parts of the muriate 
M>da with one of manganese; to which three parts 
of sulphuric acid is added, diluted with two of wa1 
A moderate heat is then applied. 

5. Thus it would seem, that although incapable of 
being breathed with impunity, yet animal and 

trid and contagious i 
inflammation or combustion are affected by the oxymu- 

6. Its mposed, un] 

•ht. 

7. The French chem red that thic 

importance, not only in chemis- 
ntiseptic po 

-it or of 

8. 11 e time 

i I lie major part 



OF ACIDS. 93 

I he virus of various poisons is rendered com- 
. inert by the powers of the oxymuriatic acid. 
This part of its uses has not been carried to the extent 
it deserves b} r medical artists, though the philosophical 
chemist knows of no truth more certain, than that such 
are its powers. 

Experiment 1. When candles are made to burn in 
the oxygenized muriatic acid, they yield a reddish flame. 
2. By exposing" its solution to intense cold, the oxy- 
muriatic acid crystallizes in plates. 

238. The gas obtained from this acid, ox- 
idizes and burns several of the metals, when 
they are reduced to a very thin leaf, like that 
of gold leaf, &c. 

Experiment 1. To obtain oxymuriatic acid gas, pro- 
cure some manganese in powder, and pour upon it 
double its weight of muriatic acid; pour the mixture 
into the phial or retort, described in the apparatus for 
obtaining oxygen gas. Connect the phial, by means of 
a tube, with the receiver on the shelf of the tube. The 
gas will immediately rise into the receiver, and if the 
heat of a lamp be applied to the bottom of the retort, 
containing the manganese and muriatic acid, the gas 
will be sent off in greater abundance. 

2. If the receiver, into which the oxymuriatic acid 

*as rises, be provided with an orifice and stopper at 

the top, introduce into the gas a piece of Dutch metal, 

or copper foil, it will instantly take fire, and will burn 

Lintil the whole will be consumed, affording a very curi- 

;>ectacle. 

^>. Throw some bits of gold leaf, or some zinc, in 

:r, into a receiver, filled with this gas, and showers 

f fire will be produced, of very brilliant appearance. 

. Nitric acid (or aqua-fortis) is one of 

the constituent parts of nitre, or salt-petre. It 

self composed of oxygen and nitrogen. 

Nitric acid is clear and colourless, 



94 of acids. 

like water; its smell is pungent, its taste ex- 
ceedingly acid, its action on animal substances 
is corrosive, and it stains the skin yellow. 

291. Nitric acid oxidizes, or dissolves most 
of the metals, and when united with them 
and other substances, forms the salts called 
nitrates. 

292. Nitro-muriatic acid (or aqua regia) 
is formed of two parts of nitric acid, to one 
of muriatic acid. It is the only acid which 
dissolves gold. 

293. Carbonic acid is a combination of 
carbon and oxygen. It is found in chalk, 
lime-stone, magnesia, &c. 

294. In the form of gas it unites slowly 
with water; but by the assistance of agitation 
and pressure, the water may be impregnated 
with it in a very high degree, by which 
means it acquires an agreeable acidulous taste. 

lRustratlon. Carbonic acid gas is found in many na- 
tural waters. Those of Pyrmont and Seltzer in Europe, 
and the Balls-town spring's in the state of Ne v York, 
are highly impregnated with it. The artificial mineral 
waters of Philadelphia are composed of common water 
and carbonic acid gas, with the addition of such salts as 
are found in the waters composing the different springs 
which arc intended to be imitated. 

295. Carbonic acid enters into combina- 
tion with the alkalies, earths, and metallic 

296. When combined with metals, they 
are then called carbonates. 



OF ACIDS. 95 

297. Phosphoric acid is compounded of 
phosphorus and oxygen. It is procured chiefly 
from bones, by distillation. The earthy sub- 
stance, which remains after the oil and jelly 
they contain is separated from them, is phos- 
phoric acid, mixed with lime. 

29S. Phosphoric acid, when deprived of 
water, is solid and transparent; when liquid 
it is of a thick oily appearance. 

299. Fluoric acid is found in Derbyshire, 
or fluor spar, which is compounded of fluoric 
acid and lime. 

300. Fluoric acid has the property of dis- 
solving glass, and is used for the purpose of 
engraving or etching on that substance. 

Experiment 1. To obtain fluoric acid, pound some 
Derbyshire spar, and pour over it an equal quantity of 
sulphuric acid; a gas will be immediately liberated, 
which may be received into a vessel, containing* a small 
quantity of water; the water will absorb the gas as it 
rises, and fluoric acid will be the consequence. The 
ressels used in this experiment, should be of lead, as 
Jie glass apparatus would soon be corroded or dissolved 
3y the acid. 

2. If the glass apparatus is used in obtaining fluoric 
icid, and no water is put into the receiver, the follow- 
,ng amusing experiment may be made. Put a dead fly, 
Dr other small animal, into the receiver into which the 
2ras rises; in a few minutes the natural moisture will 
stbsorb fluoric acid; the silex contained in the glass, 
will be dissolved and precipitated upon the animal, 

hich will then be apetrefaction, or an animal covered 
ith stone. 

3. Cover a piece of glass with a thin coating of wax, 



OF ACJi' 

and then trace a drawing of any description, with a pro- 
per instrument, through the wax into the glass. Put 
»{ glass into the receii pparatus of 

and apply the gas of the fluoric acid as above dc- 
d, when" the part of the glass exposed to it, will 
ioded so as to exhibit every feature of the draw- 
ing. 

301. Boracic acid is composed of the sub- 
stance called borax and oxygen. Its proper- 
ire little known, and it is not much in 

use. 

302. Arsenic acid, tungstic acid, molyh- 
dic acid, and chromic acid, are combinations 
with various metallic oxides, but their pro- 
perties have not as yet been clearly ascer- 

;ed. 

303. Acetous acid, or vinegar, is obtained 
^posing liquors, such as wine, cider, beer, 
which have undergone fermentation, to 

the open air. By this means they imbibe 
oxygen, or the acidifying principle. 

1. Acetous acid, as usually prepared, is 
a yellowish liquid; but when distilled it is as 
water, and its strength greatly im- 
proved. It is then known by the name oi 
distilled vinegar. 

5. Acetic acid is merely acetous acid, 
brought to a higher degree of acidity or con- 
Inition. 

a. The most powerful acid of this class i. 

om hard woods, (such as oak, ash, birch 

uinated pyn "rid; which is nothing 

more than acetic acid, combined with empyreumatic oi 



OF ACIDS. 

and bitumen. The process by which it is obtained is 
laborious, but the product is superior to that of the best 
household vinegar in the proportion of 3 to 2. M. 
Monge has discovered that this acid has the property of 
preventing" the decomposition of animal substances, and 
of arresting" putrefaction. It is said to be sufficient to* 
plung-e meat only for a few moments into this acid, even 
slightly empyreumatic, to preserve it as long as you 
please. — Note. To the empyreumatic oil, a part of this 
effect has been ascribed; and hence has been accounted 
for the agency of wood smoke in the preservation of 
tongues, hams, herrings, &c. 

306. Acetic acid enters into combination 
with the alkalies and metals, and forms, with 
them, the substance called acetates. 

Illustration. In chemistry, the acetates of copper, of 
lead, of soda, and of potash, are compounds of this de- 
scription. 

307. Acetic acid, when highly concentrat- 
ed, is pungent and acrid, and corrodes animal 
substances. 

30S. Oxalic acid is found in abundance in 
the juice of sorrel, from which it derives its 
name. When pure it is then in the form of 
small white crystals, of an agreeable taste. It 
may also be artificially procured from sugar 
and the nitric acid. 

Illustration. In the distillation of sugar with the ni- 
tric acid, the peculiar acid of sugar, or the oxalic acid. 
• is separated. 

309. Oxalic acid also exists in several other 
vegetable substances, and is found in great 
abundance in wool. 

Observation 1. Oxalic acid is used by the ealico-prin- 



OF A.CIDS. 

, as w ell as 
subsl I colours. 

2. It is also used lor taking out iron moulds from 

linen, Which it is enabled to do, by its dissolving the 

. iron. 

310. Tart (trous acid (the cream of tartar 
of the shops) is composed of the tartarous acid 
and potash. When this acid is obtained pure, 
like oxalic acid it appears in the form of white 
crystals. 

311. The cream of tartar is found in all 
Is where wine has heen kept, and espe- 
cially port wine. 

Experiment 1. The tartarous acid is procured by 
mixing the tartar with chalk, or lime, which imbibes 
the superfluous acid. 

Or it may be procured by boiling- the tartar with 
imes its weight of water, and then adding to 
sulphuric acid. This unites with the vegetable 
alkali, and forms vitrioiated tartar, or (properly speak- 
ing) th of potash; and the pure acid o 

n crystals by evaporation and fil- 
, equal in weight to half the cream of tartar em- 
more soluble in 
than ' of tartar. 

.\ Citric acid is found in the juice of 

,1 other fruits. It is used 

in medicine tp counteract the effects of opium, 

'IIS. 

Illustration. If ho has taken opium or lau 

danuni, he callow large quantities of lemon- 

, the deadly effects of 

ml other colours, are disch:i 
by the citric acid, upon which principle it is, that cab- 



OF ACIDS. 99 

coes, with a dark ground, have white stars, or other or- 
naments, formed upon them, by means of proper blocks, 
■d with citric acid, and printed after the usual 
manner. This effect is termed discharging. 

313. Malic acid is obtained from the juice 
of apples, strawberries, and other fruits. It 
is a reddish coloured, ana 1 very sour fluid. 

314. Malic acid is only used in chemistry, 
by way of a test, or in order to discover the 
presence of certain substances, or to separate 
two substances that are closely combined with 
each other. 

Illustration. The two simple earths, alumine and 

sia, are generally found minutely combined with 

each other. Pou> some malic acid upon this substance 

tie alumine will unite with the acid, and fall to the 

bottom, or be precipitated. - The magnesia will then 

tended or dissolved in the remaining fluid, 

and i] it is called malate of magnesia. 

5. Lactic acid is procured from milk. 
in fact the whey of milk, when become 
sour. 

316. Gallic acid is found in the galls used 
in commerce, in oak-bark, and other vege- 
tables. 

317. Gallic acid has the property of preci- 
pitating iron of a black colour, when the iron 
has been dissolved by any of the acids; for 
which reason it is employed in making ink. 

m. Common writing ink is made by mixing 
1 in water, or an infusion of galls with cop- 
peras, a. sulphate of iron. Copperas which lias 
xposed to the air is always composed of a green 



100 or acids. 

and a red sulphate. The last of these is formed from 

rosure to tl 
this red sulphate combined With the L, that 

forms common v. riting ; nk, or a gallate of iron. 

318. Mucous, or saccholactic acid, is ob- 
tained from Gum Arabic, or other mucilagi- 
nous substances. It has*not been as yet ap- 
plied to any useful purpose. 

319. Benzoic acid is prepared from the 
substance called Benzoin, or Gum Benjamin. 
This acid is used in medicine by the name of 
Flowers of Benjamin. 

320. Succinic add is prepared from amber, 

►ustible substance dug oi 
the earth, which is used for making beads, and 
other ornaments. 

Illustration. Succinic acid is obtained by putting 
equal parts of dry sand, and powdered amber, into a 
stone or metal retort, and making* it red hot, th- 
eses into the neck of the retort, in the form of 
ihining whi: 

L. Camphoric acid is pi - from 
camphor, a \\ stall ine substance, ob- 

d in the East Indies, from a kind of lau- 
rel 1 1 1 

:. Pmssic acid is composed of hydro- 
bon. It is a colourless 
liquid, lik< i sweet i 

Imondfl, con- 
found 



OF SALTS. 101 

2. This acid can be obtained in a concentrated state, 
so as to form perhaps one of the most powerful poisons 
in nature; but the process is extremely dangerous. 

323. Prussic acid, when prepared from 
blood, and other animal substances, and united 
with iron, forms the colouring substance called 
Prussian blue, used in dyeing. 

324. Sebaccic acid is procured from ani- 
mal fat, or tallow. It has a sharp and bitter- 
ish taste. 

OF SALTS. 

325. When an acid is combined with an 
ilkali, an earth, or a metallic oxide, it forms 
vhat is called a salt. 

326. When the quantities of the acid and 
of the other substance are equal, the combi- 
nation is called a neutral salt. 

327. All salts which are compounds of me- 
tallic oxides, earths, or alkalies, with the sul- 
phuric acid, are called sulphates. 

32S. When the muriatic acid is in combi- 
nation with an earth, an alkali, or a metallic 
oxide, the compound is called a muriate. 

329. When the same thing happens with 
the nitric acid, the compounds are called 
nitrates. 

330. Carbonic acid, combined with earths, 
alkalies, or metals, forms carbonates. 

Illustration 1. The saline compound, commonly 

12 



10:3 OF SILTS. 

known by the name of Glauber's salts, is sulphate of 
soda, being a combination of sulphuric acid and soda. 

Plaster of Paris, or gypsum, is called sulphate of 
lime, from being" composed of sulphuric acid and lime. 

3. Green copperas is sulphate of iron, being- com- 
pounded of sulphuric acid and iron; not of copper, as 
formerly supposed. 

4. Common salt is muriate of soda, being composed 
of muriatic acid and soda. 

5. Salt-petre is nitrate of potash, being* composed of 
potash and nitric acid. 

6. Chalk is carbonate of lime, from being formed of 
carbonic acid and lime. 

331. When a salt is found to contain more 
of the acid than of the other substance com- 
bined with it, the word super is affixed to it 

Example. When chalk has more carbonic acid thai 
lime, in its combination, it is called super-carbonate <f 
lime. 

332. When the alkali, earth, or metal, com- 
bined with an acid, exceeds the acid in quan- 

. the word sub is affixed to it. 

vmplt. If the sulphuric acid is less than the iron 
dphate of iron, it ia called sub-sulphate of iron. 

is produced 

by the union of an acid with two bases: they are called 

triple salts, and take the name of both bases; as prus- 

if potash and iron, tartrate of potash and soda, &c 

metallic salts, the bases of which contain 

■ f oxygen, are distinguished by the abbre- 

usoxysulp n. The same adjunct is 

hen the acid of salt contains an excess of 

oxymuriaie of po 

;. All salts, composed of acids ending in 

OWj I i in ite, instead of ate. 

ne, combined with phosphorous acid, is 

called of lime, whereas, when combined with 



OF salts" 103 

the stronger or phosphoric acid, it is called phosphide of 
lime. 

334. The sulphates have a bitter taste: 
those which are most familiar, are the sul- 
phate of lime, (or Plaster of Paris,) and the 
sulphate of alumine or alum. 

Illustration 1. Sulphate of lime is found in abun- 
dance in Staffordshire, Derbyshire, and many other 
places of England. The hills around Paris are almost 
entirely composed of it, hence it is called Plaster of 
Paris. It is also found in the northern parts of the 
United States and in Canada. When burnt or calcined, 
and pounded, it may be mixed with water, for which it 
has so great an affinity, that it becomes solid almost im- 
mediately. It is therefore used in making busts, cor- 
nices, &c. and very extensively applied as a manure. 

2. Sulphate of alumine, or alum, is generally found 
ri pits, mixed with earths, which are precipitated from 
it by water being added in abundance. The alum is 
dissolved by the water, and the solution being drained 
off from the earthy matter, soon crystallizes or con- 
retes into what is called rock alum. 

335. The sulphites, or sulphurous salts. 
have always a disagreeable sulphurous taste: 
when exposed to fire they yield sulphur, and 
become sulphates. 

336. The sulphites are seldom applied in 
chemistry, or the arts, to any useful purpose. 

337. The muriates, when mixed with 
strong sulphuric acid, yield muriatic acid in 
the form of a visible vapour: when nitric acid 
is poured upon them, they yield oxymuriatic 
acid gas. 

Experiment 1. Put a handful of common salt (muri- 
ate of soda) into the glass bottle or retort of the pneu- 



.104 OV SALTS. 

matic apparatus: drop gently into it sonic strong 1 oi 
centrated sulphuric acid: fix the retort to the- ret 
and a thick white vapour will be seen to rise from the 
mixture. This is muriatic acid. If a little water is 
introduced into the receiver, previous to the operation, 
the water will he impregnated with the acid, and form 
a liquid muriatic acid. 

2. If nitric acid be used instead of the sulphuric acid, 
o\) muriatic gas will be formed. 

8. The muriates are the most volatile, 
and yet the least decomposable by fire, of all 
the salts. 

Experiment. Put some common salt into an earthen 
retort, and having fixed a receiver to it, make the re- 
tort red hot, by inserting it into a strong- fire. The salt 
will be volatilized, that is, it will rise into the receiver, 
but it will still remain common salt. 

339. The chief muriatic salts are the mu- 
riates of potash, of soda (common salt), of 
lime, and of ammonia (sal ammoniac). 

Observation 1. Muriate of barytes is used as a test 
of the presence of sulphuric acid. It is poisonous even 
in small quantities. It is also used in the preparation 
of pure muriatic acid. 

soda lias various uses in the arts, &c. 

as furnishin listr) both the muriatic acid, and 

soda, h preservative are well known.* 

:; 10. The nitrates are remarkable for yield- 

* " According to Sir II. Daw's views of the nature 

of the muriatic and oxy muriatic acids, dry muriate oi 

impound of sodium and chlorine, for it may 

combination of oxymuriatic 

1 urn. In liis opinion therefore, what wc 

i ommonlj call muriate of soda contains neither soda 

on Chan, by Dr. Comstock. 



OF SALTS. 105 

ing oxygen gas, mingled with nitrogen gas, 
when heat is applied to them. 

341. When concentrated sulphuric acid is 
poured upon them, they yield nitric acid, in 
white vapours. 

342. The nitrate which is most familiar to 
us, is nitrate of potash, commonly called nitre, 
or saltpetre. 

343. The carbonates are known by giving 
out carbonic acid, when jiie sulphuric or nitric 
acid is poured upon them. 

344. Carbonate of lime, or common chalk, 
s the most common of these salts. 

345. The phosphates may be melted either 
into an opaque, or into a transparent substance, 
called glass of phosphorus. 

346. The 1 most common of the phosphoric 
salts, is phosphate of lime, a white tasteless 

ubstance, which is found in a native state in 
many parts of the world. 

347. Phosphate of lime is found in bones, 
milk, and several other animal matters: it is 
also*abundant in wheat. 

348. The fluates are remarkable for form- 
ing the fluoric acid, which corrodes or dis- 
solves silex. 

349. The most common are, fluates of lime, 
of soda, of ammonia, of alumine, and of 
silex. 

350. The filiate of lime enters into the com- 
position of Derbyshire spar. It also exists 



106 OF OXIDES. 

in the human teeth, forming the enamel, 
which defends them from decay. 

351. The acetates are the combinations of 
certain substances, with the acetic acid. They 
are distinguished from most other salts, by 
being easily dissolved in water. 

352. The chief acetic salts, ore the ace- 
g of barytes, of potash, of soda, of 

of ammonia, and of magnesia. 

353. The acetate^vvith which we are most 
• familiar, is acetate oT lead, or sugar of lead. 

Illustration. To make acetate of lead, procure some 
common white-lead, and dissolve it in acetous acid, 
(distilled vinegar) : apply heat to the solution, and the 
water of the acetous acid will fly off in vapour, leaving 
acetate of lead in the form of minute crystals.^ 

354. The tartrates are combinations of 
substances with tartaric acid. lEThe tartrate 
of lime is most common, and it is found in 
the common tartar used in commerce. 

355. The/y< \v combi- 
nations of the Pr sh and 
soda. These are call* ates. 

356. There • nicn 
are best known from ised in dyeing, 

lame of Prussian h 
7. The triple prussiates are composed ol 
iron, combined with potash. 
Dfimonia. 

OF OXIDES. 

j. The simple substances, when unite* 



OF OXIDES, 107 

io a less quantity of oxygen than is necessary 
to form acids, are called oxides. 

359. Metals, earths, and vegetables, furnish 
substances which may be converted into 
oxides, by a union with oxygen. 

360. Most of the metals become oxides by 
exposure to the atmospheric air. They also 
take oxygen by lying in water, or in the acids, 
3oth of which substances are decomposed or 
^obbed of their oxygen, by their union with 
netals. 

Illustration 1. Gold, silver, and platina, are not oxi- 
lized or rusted in the open air, but they become so 
.hen an acid is applied to them, or when highly heat- 
d, because their particles are then expanded, and can 
nore readily admit of the oxygen. 
2. Iron, copper, and lead, become oxidized upon e» 
osure to the air for a few days. Manganese will be- 
come a perfect oxide after being a few hours in the 
)pen air. 

361. The metals have different degrees of 
ffinity for oxygen; some being more easily 

>xidized than others, will reduce an oxide to 
ts metallic form, when brought into contact 
vith it. 

Illustration 1. Zinc, by its powerful attraction for 
)xygen, decomposes a great number of salts and me- 
.allic solutions, and precipitates the metal from them, 
ither in a metallic form, or less oxidized than they were 
efore. 

2. Upon this principle, the pin manufacturers whiten 
heir pins. They fill a pan with alternate layers of pins 
md grain tin, upon which they pour a solution of tar- 
rite of potash, (tartarous acid and potash) and boil the 



108 OF OXIDES. 

whole four or five hours. The tartaric acid dissolves 
the tin, and gradually deposits it on the surface of the 
pins, in consequence of its greater affinity for zinc, 
which enters into the brass wire, of which the pins are 
made. 

362. Metallic oxides are generally in pow- 
der, and are heavier tlian the primitive me- 
tals. With the acids they form the metallic 
salts. 

363. No metal is capable of being dissolved 
in the acid until it is combined with a specific 
degree of oxygen. 

Illustration. If a metal has more than the specific 
degTee of oxygen, it will fall to the bottom in a solu- 
tion, and, instead of being dissolved, will form a me- 
uillic salt. 

364. Sulphur, phosphorus, hydrogen, car- 
bon, and nitrogen, have their oxides, as wel 
as the metals. 

365. Sulphur becomes oxide of sulphur, by 
being kept in a melted state in the open air 
until it becomes of a red colour. With a 
greater portion of oxygen, it becomes sulphu- 
ric acid. 

366. Phosphorus, when exposed to a small 
portion of air, becomes first white, and then 
dark brown. In this state it is oxide of phos- 
phorus; with a greater quantity of oxygen, if 
is phosphoric acid. 

367. Hydrogen enters into combinatior 
with oxygen in one degree only, and formj 
water, which is, strictly speaking, an oxidr 
of hydrogen. 



OF COMBUSTION. 109 

J6S. Nitrogen, with a certain portion of 
>xygen, forms nitrous oxide; a further por- 
ion makes it nitric oxide. 

369. Nitrous oxide is procured by expos- 
ng nitrate of ammonia in a retort, to the heat 
:>f a lamp, until red hot. The oxide then rises 
n the form of gas. 

370. Nitrous oxide supports combustion 
)etter than atmospheric air. When breathed 
into the lungs, it communicates a pleasurable 
or intoxicating sensation. 

371. Nitric &xide, or nitrous gas, is pro- 
cured by gently heating copper or mercury 
in diluted nitrous acid, and collecting the gas, 
which rises during the operation. 

Observation 1. Nitrous gas suffocates animals which 
reathe it. It is heavier than common air. 

2. When in contact with oxygen gas, it forms nitric 
acid, or aqua fortis, which owes its yellow colour to the 
nitrous gas. 

372. Most animal and vegetable substances 
ire capable of becoming oxides.. 

Illustration. The red part of the blood is an oxide. 
Sugar is a vegetable oxide. Oils, butter, and the flesh 
f animals, become rancid by the absorption of oxygen. 

OF COMBUSTION. 

\. Combustion, or burning, is that pro- 
by which combustible bodies absorb oxy- 
gen, and suffer the caloric it contains to es- 

\s heat. 

K 



1 10 OF COMBUSTION. 

Illustration. Oxygen exists in the state of gas in the 
atmospheric i a combustible body is heated to 

ion for 
•sorbs it from tl. 
;;ive it the gaseous for 
imong the surrounding bo< jioning heat, 

or warmth. 

374. Some bodies are combustible, ot ! 
incombustible. 

Illustration. The term combustible is applied to every 

body capable of being burnt, in atmospheric air, or in 

3, and consequently of uniting with o\ 

~>. T«ho§e combustible substances which 

resisted every attempt to decompose 

them, are called simple combustibles. 

376. Hydrogen, sulphur, phosphorus, and 
carbon, are simple combustibles. To these 
might be added all the metals; for they also 
are combustible, and have not yet been de- 
composed. But from their possessing pro- 
eculiar to themselves, they have not 
ally been ranked among this class of 

nt. To prove that metals may actually be 

burnt, and give out light and heat, twist a sirfall piece 

of iron wire into the form of a corkscrew, by rolling it 

ill stick. Fix one end of it into a cork, pre- 

jar filled with o 

p round tin tton thread, dip- 

e to the cotton 

lie wire into the jar of 

lire from the cotton, 

ng out sparks in 

all din ustion, the iron com- 

:f iron 



OF COMBUSTION. 



Ill 



s formed, which will be found to be one-third heavier 
ban the original piece of wire. 

cation. Dr. Thomson in the last edition of his 
Jhemistry, makes the following" classification of simple 
:ombustibles. 

"There are," he observes, "forty-three such sub- 
stances known. I conceive they may be very conve- 
liently classed under the following genera : 

"I. Bodies forming* acids by uniting- with the sup- 
porters of combustion, or with hydrogen. The sub- 
stances belonging to this genus are the eight follow- 
no:.* 

1. Hydrogen 4. Silicon 7. Arsenic 

2. Carbon 5. Phosphorus 8. Tellurium 

3. Boron 6. Sulphur 

Ml these bodies, except arsenic and tellurium, have 

to classed apart from the metals, under the 

\t combustibles. 

"II orming- alkalies, or bases capable of 

constituting neutral salts with acids, by uniting with 

he supporters of combustion. 

'These bodies are 28 in number. They are all me- 
als, -and may be arranged under five families or groups, 

Family. 
1. Potassium 
Sodium 
Calcium 

4. Barium 

5. Strontium 

nesium 

ium 
:inum 

iiinura 
1 Bodies producing, by their union with the sup 

"I class along with them likewise osmium, from 



4. 


Yerconium 


3. 


Tin 




3d Family. 


4. 


Copper 


1. 


Iron 


5. 


Bismuth 


2. 


Nickle 


6. 


Mercury 


3. 


Cobalt 


7. 


Silver 


4. 


Manganese 




5th Family. 


5. 


Cerium 


1. 


Gold 


6. 


Uranium 


2. 


Platinum 




Ath Family. 


3. 


Palladium 


1. 


Zinc 


4. 


Rhodium 


2. 


Lead 


5. 


Iridium 



L12 riON. 

rs of combustion, imperfect acids, or subs 
intermediate between acids and alkalies. 

"These bodies are six in number, and belong 1 all t< 
the class of metals. 

1. Antimony 3. Molybdenum 5. Columbium oi 

2. Chromium 4. Tungsten Tantalum 

6. Titanium." 
To this classification the following forcible objection 1 
have been made. 

"Upon this arrangement it will be proper to observe,. 
1st. That whether hydrogen be acidifiable, depends on 
the truth of the theory which the author has adopted, 
viz. respecting the constitution of chlorine ancrmuria- 
tic acid gas. There is as yet no proof that hydrogen 
is acidifiable. 

"2d. It is impossible to force any oxide of silicon 
into the class of acids, according to the definition 
t^iven of acids, in vol. 2d of Thomson, viz : The woi 
acid comprehends under it all substances* possessed of 
the following properties: When applied to the tongue 
they excite that sensation which is called sour or acid 
— They change the colour of vegetables to a red — 
They unite with water in almost any proportion — They 
combine with alkalies, earths, and most of the metallic 
oxides, and form salts. 

" 3d. It seems to me a strange perversion of language 
to class 18 of the metals, iron, gold, silver, copper* 
lead, tin, &c. &c. among the alka] 

"4th. It i extremely- dubious whether the 

alkalies, with a metallic appearance (metalloids) oughi 

tanked as metal I They want the charac- 

ght of metals. 2. They are extremely solu- 

. Their oxides are heavier than the 

before it be oxided — Properties, until Sir 

Hump forced these substances into company 

i t allowed to pos 
4. Dr. Clarke's experiments at Cambridge, on 
the metallization of the earths have obtained but litti 
London. — (See Dr. Brandt's Journ. 317.) 



OF COMBUSTION. 113 

tc Agaia. His 3d genus consists of bodies that are in 
termediate between acids and alkalies, a description 
hitherto usually applied to neutral salts; but no one 
who has procured the acids so called of chrome, mo- 
lybdena, and tungsten, can doubt of the propriety of 
classing" them among* the acids, according' to the usual 
meaning" hitherto given by chemists to that word. To 
class silicon among" the acidihable bases, and to reject 
chrome, is indeed a classification that facts will not 
justify. 

" The whole of this arrangement appears to me form- 
ed on considerations too theoretical; they may possi- 
bly be verified by future experiments, but they are not 
to be taken for granted in the present state of our 
knowledge, especially in an elementary system of the 
science of Chemistry." — Cooper. 

oil. Compound combustibles, are such -bo- 
dies as are formed by the union of two or 
more of the simple combustibles. 

Illustration. Common coal, bitumens, oils, and resin, 
oeing compounded of hydrogen, carbon, and others of 
nple combustibles, are compound combustibles. 
9lS. There are thirteen incombustible sub- 
stances, — nitrogen, the three alkalies, and the 
nine Earths. 

379. Certain.substanees are called support- 
ers of combustion. They are such as must 
be present before combustible bodies will 
burn, and are either simple or compound. 

380. Atmospheric air, nitrous oxide, nitric 
acid, &c. are compound supporters of combus- 
tion. 

'ration. Tf nitrous acid (aqua fortis) he mixed 
with about half its weight of sulphuric acid, (oil of 
vitriol,) and poured into oil of turpentine, the whole will 
K 2 



I 11 OF COMBUSTION. 

immediately burst into flame. In this experiment tin 
n of the nitrous acid, promotes the combustion. 
381. Oxygen is a simple supporter of com- 
bustion, to which some chemists have added 
Chlorine and Iodine; and Jimper has suspect- 
ed a fourth, to which he has given the name 
of Fluorine. 

Observation. In a forme* edition of this work, some 
\ aions were made to^show that the opinion of Sir 
Humphrey Davy with respect to chlorine being 1 a sim- 
ple substance was highly improbable.* I stated an ex- 
periment of Dr. Murray, in which he produced carbo- 
nic acid gas and water, from carbonic oxide, hydrogen 
and chlorine, which would not have been done unless 
the B chlorine had furnished the oxygen to the carbonic 
oxide to form the carbonic acid, and to the hydrogen to 
form the water. 

To this experiment Davy has objected, and contends, 
that when chlorine and hydrogen are exploded, no wa- 
ter is formed, whereas, if chlorine contained oxygen, 
a different result must have been the consequ. n 
But from subsequent experiment, Murray insists 
the explosion induced between chlorine and hydroger 
does produce water, by an union of the hydrogen tc 
the oxygen of the chlorine; and that this water combin- 
ed chemically with the original muriatic acid gas re 
manning. And as Davy had denied that muriatic acic 
gas contained water in chemical union, Murray under 
took to shew that it did, by the following experiment 
— lie formed muriate of ammonia, by combining muria 
tic acid gas with ammoniacal gas, both made dry b) 
hot muriate of lime, which has a powerful affinity foi 
moisture. He then distilled the muriate of ammonia 
to obtain manifest signs of water. To these result 
I Davy objected, by contending that the moisture pro 

90, of the present edition. 



OF COMBUSTION. 115 

iuced was probably owing to an inaccuracy in the ex- 
periment, occasioned from the access of air. But Dr. 
[iostock and Dr. Trail of Liverpool, repeated the ex- 
periment of Murray, with every necessary precaution 
o exclude the atmospheric air, and found the muriate 
)f ammonia as above formed did afford water. And in 
he latter end of 1817, Dr. Ure, professor of chemistry 
it Glasgow, by passing the vapour of the muriate of 
mmonia through laminae of pure silver and copper ig- 
lited in glass tubes, found that water and hydrogen 
rere copiously evolved, and that the metals were con- 
erted into metallic muriates. Dr. Murray, by a series 
)f experiments made with the greatest precaution, con- 
rmed those of Dr. Ure, in which he indisputably pro- 
Hired water from the dry muriate of ammonia. — This 
later it is evident could not have proceeded from the 
immoniacal gas, as that substance is composed only of 
ivdrogen and nitrogen; it must therefore have proceed- 
ed from the muriatic acid gas with which it was chemi- 
:ally combined. 
Professor Cooper in his notes to Thomson's Chemis- 
/, makes the following just remarks on the above, 
vhich he has there more minutely detailed. "I compi- 
ler these experiments fatal to the whole theory of Sir 
1. Davy, adopted by Dr. Thomson, for they enable us 
o account for the water formed by the hydrogen ex- 
loded with the oxygen of the chlorine." He adds, 
* To me they seem also fatal to the theory that consti- 
utes iodine and fluorine supporters of combustion; for 
odine is always procured by means of some substance 
hat gives out its oxygen in the process. And fluorine 
s so indecisively ranked in this class as to form but a 
.light difficulty. Oxygen alone then seems likely to be 
einstated as the exclusive supporter of combustion."* 

* " The views of Sir H. Davy on the composition of 
mlorine are combatted by many of the first chemists in 
England as well as in this country." — Dr. Comstock. 



I 16 OF I 

de of procuring [ovine. Iodine may be obtaine< 
by the following proc< 

kelp, and dissolve it in water; fi 
I . and evaporate it till all the crystals of common 

salt that can be obtained h: ted from it. Mix 

the mother liquor with sulphuric acid, which boil far 
some time. (By this means a great quantity of muria- 
1, and of sulphuretted hydrogen, which impede 
on of the iodine, are previously removed.) 
Then put the liquid into a small retort, and mix with it 

li black oxide of mangam 
sulphuric acid that has been previously added. Apply 
heat. A violet coloured vapour arises, which is to be 
driven into a proper receiver, against which it condenses- 
into u black bril l\ 'This substance is iodine 

The smell is disagreeable, and very similar to I * 
chlo ine, though not so stn like chlorir 

olours. 
1 into vapour it has a very inten 
colour. It was from this colo. 
, from which it was chajig 
nto iodine, as better suite* ! 
3 the property of combininj 
ning with it a compound of a fin< 
colo 

of io and add a v< 

getable acid. The compound falls down in the 
fine blue p l of iodine. 

\f. Ampci' I 

was led 1 
id and mur 

d with chlo pporter 

id must like 
md an unknown sup 
nknown suppoi - 



COMBUSTION. ir; 



ice given the name of fluorine. But he was un- 
Jjle to obtain it in a separate state. 

The evidence of Davy with respect to the existence of 
luorine is as follows: When fluoric acid and potassium 
ire brought into contact, a violent action takes place; a 
;olid white substance is formed, and a quantity of hydro- 
gen gas is discharged. Supposing the fluoric acid free 
rom water, he concluded the fluorine and the potassium 
:ombined and formed a solid substance, while the hy- 
irogen previously united to the fluorine makes its es~ 
:ape in the form of gas. To prove that fluoric acid of 
t certain specific gravity was free from water, he formed 
vith it a fluate of ammonia, by placing it in contact with 
.mmoniacal gas, till it became saturated with the alkali. 
He then heated it, and did not discover that it gave out 
iny water. But, "as the fluoric acid and fluor spar 
employed to form the afcid, both contain water, it is 
highly probable that the gas does." Messrs. Davy, in 
operating on the salts formed by muriatic and ammo- 
niacal gas, could not procure water; while Mr. Murray, 
Dr. Bostock, Dr. Trail, and pr. Ure did. "For the 
3ame reason that chlorine seems to combine with oxy- 
gen during the process of procuring it, so may iodine 
nd fluorine; and we are likely to be brought back to 
the elegant simplicity of the Lavoserian doctrine, that 
the only supporter of combustion is oxygen." — Cooper. 
382. The heat produced by combustion, 
Is derived from the oxygen gas of the atmos- 
)here. 

Illustration. When we kindle* a fire with wood or 
coals in order to procure heat, a continual stream of 
tmospheric air flows towards the fire place, to occupy 
die vacancy left by the air that has been decomposed 
or robbed of its oxygen. Every fresh portion of air, 
as it arrives at the fire place; is in its turn decomposed 
also. Hence a continual supply of caloric or heat is 
furnished without intermission, until the whole of the 



118 

1th oxygen. As Uu 
or coal bui Th 

ood or coal unite 
acid and forms carbonic acid gas, while another j 
of th 

When the coiftbustio irthy parts only i 

:ombustible 

3. No combustible body can burn with- 
out atmospheric air, or rather without oxygen 
which is a component part of the atmospheric 
air. 

Illustration. Place a lighted candle under a glass jar 
inverted over a he candle will be 

gradually < 1 as it exhausts the oxygen con 

tained in the air of the jar. 

384. The greater th§ quantity of oxygc 
gas which any body is capable of absorbing, 
or decomposing, the greater will be the heat 
produced. 

5. When a bocty is changed into an oxide 
ombustion, it is said to be oxidized; but 

when changed into an arid, the term oxyge- 
nized is 1; 

6. No part of a substance is destroyed 

d by combustion; the component 
d from each other, 
ombinations. 

\T\]\l. 

compound, consisting 
two vi gen and one of 

and composed by weight of eleven part 



OF WATER. 119 

>ne-tenth of hydrogCn, and eighty eight parts 
nd nine-tenths of oxygen. 

3S8. Water is decomposed or separated 
nto its constituent parts, by several opera- 
ions of nature. 

Illustration. All living- vegetables have the power of 
Lecomposing water, by a secret operation peculiar to 
hemselves. They combine a part of the hydrogen and 
►xygen of the water with the carbon of the atmosphere 
nd of the soil, to form vegetable oils, wax, gum, resin, 
ugar, Sec. while the superfluous oxygen is given off 
»y the leaves. 

389. Water may also be decomposed, and 
gain formed, by artificial and chemical means. 

Illustration If an empty jar be held over the flame 
emitted from hydrogen gas, when burning, (as describ- 
ed under the article hydrogen) the hydrogen emitted 
vill combine with the oxygen of die atmospheric air, 
md water will be formed, which will be deposited in 
Irops within the sides of the jar. 

390. Hydrogen is constantly emanating 
rom every animal and vegetable substance, 
n a state of decay or putrefaction. It is emit- 
ed from various mines and volcanoes. 

391. Water takes a solid form in the state 
of ice, and also when combined with lime, 
marble, and other substances. 

392. Spring water, although the clearest 
md most inviting to look at, is frequently 
more unfit for common use than any other. 
It becomes pure or polluted in proportion as 
the earth through which it passes is less or 
more impregnated with saline or metallic sub- 
stances. 



120 OF MINERAL WATBRS 

. Observation. That water in^reneral ought to be 
ferred which sits lightest on the stomach; is fresh, liveh 
and agreeable to the taste; that which boils pease and 
pulse quickest, and mixes readily with soap without 
curdling. 

OF MINERAL WATERS. 

393. When water contains such an excess 
of any foreign substance, that it cannot be 
used for domestic purposes, it is called min 
eral ivater. 

394. The acids, the alkalies, and the salts, 
are the three classes of substances, which unite 
with water in forming mineral waters. 

395. Carbonic acid is most frequently com 
bined with water, to which it gives a brisk- 
ness, resembling tljat of a fermenting liquor. 

396. Sulphurous acid is found combined 
with waters in the vicinity of volcanoes, and 
in all hot springs, which are then called sul- 
phurous waters. 

397. The only alkali whicn has been ob- 
served in mineral waters uncombined is soda, 
and the only earthy bodies are silex and lime. 

398. The neutral salts are most frequently 
to be met with in mineral waters. 

399. Sulphate of lime, of soda, and of mag 
-. (or sulphuric acid, united with these 

substances) are neutral salts found in mineral 
wat( 

400. Sulphate of magnesia (the medicin< 



OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 121 

known by the name of Epsom salts) is found 
in great abundance in the mineral springs near 
Epsom. 

401. The muriates are more common in wa- 
ter, than any other of the salts. 

OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 

402. The principal substances which enter 
into the composition of vegetables, are carbon, 
hydrogen and oxygen. 

Jb3. Sugar is the most frequent ingredient 
met with in vegetables. 

Illustration. The sugar-cane and sugar-maple yield 
it most freely. Beet-root, carrots, turnips, and most, 
kinds of grain, also contain sugar in abundance. 

404. Gum, or mucilage, is also found in 
abundance in vegetables. 

405. Gum Arabic, and cherry-tree gum, 
re most used in chemistry. They are oozed 

out from trees, by the heat of the sun. 

406. Jelly is also an ingredient in vege- 
tables. It is generally procured from the 
juices of blackberries and other fruits. ' 

407. Tan, or tannin, is very abundant in 
(the bark of most vegetables, particularly the 
{aak. 

408. It ha f s a bitter taste, and is remark- 
able for its astringency. 

nation. The most important property in tan is 
inng the substance called leather. When applied 
L 



122 OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 

to the skin of an animal, (which is called gelatine pi 
glue, in chemistry,) a new and insoluble compound, 
or leather, is formed. 

409. The bitter principle is another con 
stituent part of vegetables. It is most con< 
spicuous in hops, quassia, &c. 

410. Opium (the narcotic principle) is alsi 
contained in many plants. 

Illustration. This substance abounds in white pop 
pies, and in plants which exhibit a milky juice, whei 
their stalks are broken, such as garden lettuce, dan 
delion, &c. This milky juice, when exposed totht 
sun, becomes of a dark colour, and concretesFmt; 
opium. . 

411. Gluten and starch form the essentia 
parts of the flour made from wheat, barley 

potatoes, &c. 

Experiment To obtain gluten and starch, moiste 
any quantity of wheat flour with water, and knead i 
into a tough paste. Let a small stream of water kee 
dropping upon this paste while it is constantly worke 
up with the hands. The water will at first run o 
white and turbid, owing to the starch which it cor 
tains; but when it runs off quite clear, nothing is le: 
in the hands but a tough stringy substance, whict 
when dried, resembles glue or horn, and is pure gli 
ten. Starch is made by heating the mixture whic 
has run off from the gluten, until the water is evapc 
rated, and dry starch remains. 

412. Wax is collected by bees from th 
leaves of trees and plants. It? is not altere< 
in its nature by these animals. 

413. Resin, like gum, exudes from mos 
trees, particularly from firs. 

414. The substances known by the name 



OF VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES. 123 

of balsams, varnishes, turpentine, rosin, tar, 
and pitch, are all resins. They are obtained 
from trees, by operations peculiar to the ma- 
nufacture of each. 

415. Caoutchouc, or Indian rubber, is a 
.milky gum, which exudes from certain trees 
in South America: upon being exposed to the 
air, it hardens into the consistence in which 
we see it in this country. 

416. Cork is the bark of a species of the 
.' oak. It is called in chemistry suber. 

417. Camphor is a white concrete sub- 
stance, t found in several vegetables, but is 

!i most abundant in a particular tree in the East 
Indies. 

' Observation. Camphor is highly inflammable, and 
will even burn on the surface of water, on which it 
floats. It is used in medicine, and has a pungent smell 

: and sharp taste. 

418. Vegetables contain oils in great abun- 
dance. These exist in two states, called fixed 
oil, and volatile or essential oil. 

419. Vegetable fixed oil is obtained by 
squeezing or pressing the seeds and kernels 
of most vegetables, or by keeping them for 
some time in hot water, when their oil rises 
to the surface. 

Illustration. Olive oil, oil of almonds, linseed oil, 
&c. are obtained by bruising* these several productions, 
in machinery made for the purpose. 

420. Essential, or volatile oil, is what is 
commonly called an essence. 



124 OF ANIMAL SUBSTAN< 

Illustration. Essences are generally obtained b; 
tilling plants, the peculiar smell of which they retain, 
as oil of peppermint, oil of lavender, oil of turpentine, 
&c. These are also called spirits of lavender, ; 

421. Volatile oil is distinguished from 
fixed oil, by its leaving no greasy spot or 
stain on linen or paper, when dropped upon it. 

422. The essential oils affect the tongue 
with a sensation of heat and bitterness, and 
they are highly inflammable. 

Illustration. Squeeze the skin of an orange or le- 
mon near the flame of a candle; the essential oil will 
fly out and burn with a bright white flame. By simply 
rubbing a lump of sugar against the skin of an orange, 
the sugar will imbibe this essential oil. 

OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 

423. The simple bodies of which animal 
substances are compounded, are carbon, hy- 
drogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, phospho- 
rus, and lime. 

424. Gelatine, or glue, is the most com- 
mon compound ingredient found in animal 
substances. 

"». It is the principal part of the skin and 
flesh of animals. Blood and milk always con- 
tain it, and it is also found in bones, horns, 
and li 

». The pro icily fW>m c; 

■ 

When the soup or jelly 
beef, &c. becomes hard and dry, from the v. 



OF ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 125 

evaporated from it, it is called portable soup, and is a. 
real glue. The common glue, used by workmen, is 
made by boiling down the parings of skins, and the 
refuse of the tanners and leather dressers. 

426. Albumen is the name given by che- 
mists to the white of an egg, in which it is 
combined with sulphur and soda. 

Illustration. Silver spoons, used in eating eggs, are 
blackened from the sulphur contained in the albumen 
adhering to the silver. 

427. Albumen constitutes the serum or 
jelly-like substance of the blood. When 
dried, it becomes a brittle semi-transparent 
substance, like horn. 

428. Sugar is found in the milk of animals, 
and is in all respects similar to the sugar ob- 
tained from vegetables. 

429. The oils found in animals, consist of 
fat or tallow, spermaceti, train or fish oil, and 
butter. 

430. Spermaceti differs from the other ani- 
mal oils, in being found in a concrete or crys- 
tallized state, in the brain of the spermaceti 
whale. 

431. The oils obtained from fishes are fluid 
at the temperature of the atmosphere, while 
the oils of kind animals concrete into the sub- 
stance called fat or tallow. 

432. Phosphorus abounds in animal sub 
stances. 

Illustration. Phosphorus exhales copiously from pu- 
trid fish, in the state of phosphuretted hydrogen gas, 
spontaneously emitting light in the dark. * 
L2 



126 

of lime, carbonate of lime, and 
line. 

!. The clot, or thick part formed in 
blood, when taken from an animal body, is 
albumen, gelatine, and oxide of iron, which 
es it. the red coloui 
1. The serum, or watery part, is com 
posed of albumen and gelatine, mixed with 
muriate and carbonate of soda, and phosphate 
of lime. 

436. The curd, formed in the milk of ani- 
mals, is albumen, and the whey consisl 

im and sugar. 

437. Milk also contains an animal oil in 
great abundance, which is separated from it 
by agitation*, and concretes into butter. 

. OF FERMENTATION. 

438. Fermentation is a change whi 
place in i matters, containing s 
and mucilage, mixed with hike-warm w; 

TUut The fermentation of this descriptor 

[nous fermentation, b< 

pared 
vinous fermentation, an in1 

lace in the fluid, it becomes tlm 

i from the liquor, and the fermentatii 

■ 



TABLE OF CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITIONS. 127 

i quantity of spirits or alcohol, which may be separated 
om it by distillation. 

439. The acetous fermentation takes place 
when any vinous or spirituous fluid, such as 
wine or beer, is exposed to the air, from 
which it absorbs oxygen, and "becomes vinegar. 

440. Putrefaction is also a process of fer- 
mentation, peculiar both to animal and vege- 
table substances. 

Illustration. Ammonia, which is composed of nitro- 
gen and hydrogen, is always the result of putrefaction, 
In putrefaition therefore there is a total decomposition, 
or dissolution of the parts of the animal or vegetable 
substance, and entire new products are formed. 

The decomposition of compound bodies depending' 
upon the different degrees of affinity which substances 
for each other; and these degre.es being so ob- 
vious as to admit of the construction of tables shewing 
ir hat substances will decompose a primary compound, 
and what again will decompose the new formed bodv; 
clieved, as this knowledge is of importance to 
the chemist, that the present work will be rendered 
more valuable, by inserting the following table of de- 
compositions, extracted from the Edinburgh edition of 
Thomson's Chemistry. 

CABLE OF CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITIONS. 





Arsenic 


Sulphurous 


Acid 


Succinic 


Nitrous 


Nitric 


Citric 


Carbonic 


Muriatic 


Formic 


Prussic 


J'hospi 


Benzo 




Fluoric 




2. Baryies and 




c do 


Sirontian. 






Sulphuric Acid 



1^8 TABLE OF CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITU 



Oxalic 


Carbonic 


Boracic 


Succinic 


Prussic 


Sulphur 


Fluoric 




Nitrous 


Phosphoric 


4. Magtu. 


Carbonic 


Saclactic 


Oxalic Acid 


Prussic 


Nitric 


Phosphoric 




Muriatic 


Sulphuric 


6. Oxide of Gold 


Suberic 


Fluoric 




Citric 


Arsenic 


Muriatic Acid 


Tartaric 


Saclactic 


Nitric 


Arsenic 


Succinic 


Sulphuric 


Benzoic 


Nitric 


Arsenic 


Acetic 


Muriatic 


Fluori ' 1 

Tartaric 


Boracic 


Tartaric 


Sulphurous 


Citric 


Phosphoric 


Nitrous 


Malic 


Prussic 


Carbonic 


Benzoic 




Prussic 


Acetic 


7. Oxide of Silver 




Boracic 


Muriatic Acid 


3. Lime. 


Sulphurous 


Oxalic 


Oxalic Acid 


Nitrous 


Sulphuric 


Sulphuric 


Carbonic 


Saclactic 


Tartaric 


Prussic 


Phosphorous 


Succinic 




Sulphurous 


Phosphoric 


5. Alumine. 


Nitric 


Saclactic 


Sulphuric Acid 


Arsenic 


Nitric 


Nitric 


Fluoric 


Muriatic 


Muriatic 


Tartaric 


Suberic 


Oxalic ' 


Citric 


Fluori< 


Arsenic 


Formic % 


Arsenic 


Fluoric 


Acetic 


Citric 


Tartaric 


Succinic 


Malic 


nic 


Prussic # 






Carbonic 


\ 


i 






0] 


8. Oxide of Mer 


Sulphui 


'»ic 


cury. 




Acetic 


Muriatic Acid 



TABLE OP CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITIONS. 129 



Oxalic 


Saclactic 


Nitric 


Succinic 


Muriatic 


Succinic 


Arsenic 


Nitric 


Fluoric 


Phosphoric 


Phosphoric 


Saclactic 


Sulphuric 


Arsenic 


Citric 


Saclactic 


Fluoric 


Formic 


Tartaric 


Succinic 


Acetic 


Citric 


Citric 


Boracic 


Sulphurous 


Formic 


Prussic 


Nitric 


Acetic 




Fluoric 


Boracic 


13. Oxide of Leach 


Acetic 


Prussic 


Sulphuric Acid 


Boracic 


Carbonic 


Saclactic 


Prussic 




Oxalic 


Carbonic 


11. Oxide of Nickel 


Arsenic 




Oxalic Acid 


Tartaric 


9. Oxide of Copper. 


Muriatic 


Muriatic 


Oxalic Acid 


Sulphuric 


Phosphorous 


Tartaric 


Tartaric 


Sulphurous 


Muriatic 


Nitric 


Suberic 


Sulphuric 


Phosphoric 


Nitric 


Saclactic 


Fluoric 


Fluoric 


Nitric 


Saclactic 


Citric 


Arsenic 


Succinic 


Formic 


Phosphoric - 


Citric 


Acetic 


Succinic 


Formic 


Boracia 


Fluoric 


Acetic 


Prussic 


Citric 


Arsenic 


Carbonic 


Formic 


Boracic 




Acetic 


Prussic 


14. Oxide of Zinc, 


Boracic 


Carbonic 


Oxalic Acid • 


^ic 




Sulphuric 


Carbonic 


12. Oxide of Tin. 


Muriatic 




Tartaric Acid 


Saclactic 


10. Oxide of Iron. 


Muriatic 


Nitric 


Oxalic Acid 


Sulphuric 


Tartaric 




Oxalic 


Phosphoric 


; oric 


Arsenic 


Citric 


ui'ic 


Phosphoric 


Succinic 



130 TABLE OP CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITIONS. 



Fluoric 


Succinic 


Formic 


Arsenic 


Fluoric 


Acetic 


Formic 


Arsenic 


Arsenic 


Acetic 


Formic 


Boracic 


Boracic 


Acetic 


Prussic 


Prussic 


Boracic 


Carbonic 


Carbonic 


Prussic 






Carbonic 


19. Oxide of Man 


15. Oxide of Bis- 




ganese. 


muth. 


17. Oxide of Ar- 


Oxalic Acid 


Oxalic Acid 


senic. 


Citric 


Arsenic 


Muriatic Acid 


Phosphoric 


Tartaric 


Oxalic 


Tartaric 


Phosphoric 


Sulphuric 


Fluoric 


Sulphuric 


Nitric 


Muriatic 


Muriatic 


Tartaric 


Sulphuric 


Benzoic 


Phosphoric 


Nitric 


Nitric 


Fluoric 


Saclactic 


Fluoric 


Saclactic 


Succinic 


Saclactic 


Succinic 


Tartaric 


Succinic 


Citric 


Formic 


Citric 


Formic 


Acetic 


Formic 


Arsenic 


Prussic 


Acetic 


Acetic 


Carbonic 


Prussic 


Prussic 




Carbonic 




20. Oxide of T 




18. Oxide of Co- 


tanium. 


16. Oxide of Anti- 


balt. 


Phosphoric Acid 


mony. 


Oxalic Acid 


Arsenic 


Muriatic Acid 


Muriatic 


Oxalic 


Benzoic 
lie 


Sulphuric 


Sulphuric 


Tartaric 


Muriatic 


Sulphuric 


Nitric 


\itric 


Nitric 


Phosphoric 


Acetic 


Tartaric 






Saclactic 


ictic 


21 . Sulphuric Ach 


Phosphoric 


iiic 


Barytes 


Citric 


Citric 


Strontian 



TABLE OF CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITIONS. 131 



Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Ammonia 

Glucina 

tttria 

Alumina 

Zirconia 

22. Sulphurous 

Acid. 
Barytes 
Lime 
Potash 
Soda 
Strontian 
Magnesia 
Ammonia 
Glucina 
Alumina 
Zirconia 

23. Phosphoric 

Acid. 
Barytes 
Strontian 
Lime 
Potash 
Soda 
Ammonia 
Magnesia 
Glucina 
Alumina 
Zirconia 

24. Phosphorous 

Acid. 
Lime 
Barvtes 



Strontian 


Ammonia 


Potash 


Magnesia 


Soda 


Glucina 


Ammonia 


Alumina 


Glucina 


Zirconia 


Alumina 




Zirconia 


29. Oxymuriatic 


. 


Acid. 


25. * Carbonic Acid. 


Chlorine 


Barytes 


Potash 


Strontian 


Soda 


Lime 


Barytes 


Potash 


Strontian 


Soda 


Lime 


Magnesia 


Ammonia 


Ammonia 


Magnesia 


Glucina 


Alumina 


Zirconia 






30, 31, 32, 33. 


26. Nitric Acid.. 


Fluoric Boracic 


Barytes 


Arsenic and Tung 


Potash 


stic Acids. 


Soda 


Lime 


Strontian 


Barytes 


Lime 


Strontian 


Magnesia 


Magnesia 


Ammonia 


Potash 


Glucina 


Sodct 


Alumina 


Ammonia 


Zirconia 


Glucina 




Alumina 


27, 28. Muriatic 


Zirconia 


and Acetic Acidt. 




Barytes 


34. Oxalic Acid, 


Potash 


Lime 


Soda 


Barytes 


Strontian 


Strontian 


Lime 


Magnesia 



; TABLE OF CHEMICAL DECOMPOSITION?. 



Potash 




Lime 


Soda 


37. Succinic Acid. 


Ammonia 


Ammonia 


Barytes 


Magnesia 


Alumina 


Lime 
Potash 


Alumina 


35. Citric Acid. 


Soda 


40. Prussic Ac'w 


Lime 


Ammonia 


Barytes 


Barytes 


Magnesia 


Strontian 


Strontian 


Alumina 


Potash 


Magnesia 




Soda 


Potash 


38. Camplwric 


Lime 


Soda 


Acid. 


Magnesia 


Ammonia 


Lime 


Ammonia 


Alumina 


Potash 




Zirconia 


Soda 


Fixed Oik, 




Barytes 


36. Benzoic Jlcid. 


Ammonia 


Barytes 


Potash 


Alumina 


Fixed Alkalies 


Soda 


Magnesia 


Magnesia 


Ammonia 




Ammonia 


Barytes 


39. Suberic Acid. 


Oxide of Mercun 


Lime 


Barytes 


Other Metallic " 


Magnesia 


Potash 


Oxides 


Alumina 


Soda 


Alumina. ' 



133 

MISCELLANEOUS EXPERIMENTS 

ILLUSTRATING 

Tlie General Principles of Chemistry, 



1. Take a small phial about half full of cold water-, 
rasp it gently in the left hand, and from another phial 
•our a little sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol, drop by 
Top, into the water. A strong sensation of heat will 
nmediately be perceived. This, by the addition .of 
lore acid, may be increased to many degrees beyond 
hat of boiling water. 

2. Take a small phial in one hand, containing some 
al ammoniac (pulverized muriate of ammonia); pour a 
ittle water upon it, and shake the mixture. In this 
nstance a sensation of cold will immediately be felt. 

3. Into a tea-cup placed upon a hearth, and contain- 
ng about a table spoonful of^bil of turpentine, pour 
bout half the quantity of strong nitrous acid (aqua 
ortis) previously mixed with a few drops of sulphuric 
cid. The moment the acids come in contact with the 
urpentine, flame will be produced, in this expert 
nent the acids must be mixed in a phial tied to the end 
)f a stick, and at arm's length pour its contents into the. 
il, as the sudden combustion sometimes occasions a 
>art of the liquids to be thrown out of the vessel. 

4. Put an ounce or two of the black oxide of manga- 
lese into a small glass retort, pour a little sulphuric acid 
lpon it, and apply heat. Oxygen gas will be disen- 
*agefl. 

5. Convey some muriatic gas into a glass jar contain- 
ing a portion of ammoniacal gas. From the mixture «f 

M 



134 EXPERIMENTS. 

these two invisible gases a solid substance will be prb' 
duced, viz. the common sal ammoniac; this may be 
perceived to deposit itself upon the sides of the vessel 
in a neat crystallized form. 

6. Convey some carbonic acid gas into a glass jar 
containing 1 a portion of ammoniacal gas. The instant 
the two gases come in contact a great absorption will 
take place, and solid carbonate of ammonia will be 
formed on the inner surface of the jar. 

7. Put half an ounce of quicksilver into a wine glass, 
and pour about an ounce of fluted nitrous acid upon it. 
The nitrous acid will be decomposed by the metal with 
astonishing rapidity; the bulk of the acid will be 
quickly changed to a beautiful green, while its surface 
exhibits a dark crimson, and an effervescence indescri- 
bably vivid and pleasing, will go on during the whole 
time the acid acts upon the quicksilver. When a part 
only of the metal is dissolved, a change of colour will 
again take place, and the acid by degrees will become 
paler, till it is as pellucid as pure water. This is one 
instance of a metallic solution by means of an acid, in 
which the opacity of a metallic body is completely over 
come, and the whole rendered perfectly transparent. 

8. Take the metallic^solution formed in the last ex 
periment, add a little nrore quicksilver to saturate the 
acid; then place it at some distance over the flame of s 
lamp, so as gently to evaporate a part of the water. 
The new formed salt will soon be seen to shoot intc 
needle-like prismatic crystals, crossing each other 
every possible direction, affording an instance of a me 
tallic salt. 

9. Pour a drachm by weight of strong nitrous acic 
into a wine-glass, add two drachms of distilled water,* 
and, when mixed, throw a few very small pieces o 

* Where distilled water is not at hand, clean rain oi 
river water, will answer nearly as well fbr most pur 
pox 



EXPERIMENTS. 135 

granulated tin into it. A violent effervescence will 
take place, the lighter particles of the tin will be 
thrown to the top of the acid, and be seen to play up 
.nd down in the liquor for a considerable time, till the 
whole is dissolved. This is another example of a trans- 
3arent liquid holding a metal in solution. 

10. Take an ounce of a solution of potash, pour upon 
t half an ounce of sulphuric acid; lay the mixture 
iside, and when cold, crystals of sulphate of potash 
vill be formed in the liquor. Here a mild salt has been 
brmed from a mixture of two corrosive substances. 

11. Take caustic soda one ounce, pour over it one 
mnce of muriatic acid, (both corrosive substances) ; the 
>roduct will be our common table salt. 

12. Fluids acted "upon by chemical attraction some- 
imes become solid, as when carbonate of ammonia and 
dcohol are mixed together in equal quantities, and the 
nixture thrown on blotting paper. 

13. Mix in a wine-glass equal quantities of a saturated 
solution of muriate of lime, and a saturated solution of 
:arbonate of potash, both transparent fluids; stir the 
nixture, and a solid mass will be the prfpluct. 

14. Take the substance produced in the foregoing 
xperiment, and pour a very little nitric acid upon it. 
The consequence will be, the solid matter will be again 
aken up, and the whole exhibit the appearance of one 
lomogenous fluid. An instance of a solid opake mass 
aeing converted by a chemical agent to a transparent 
fluid. 

15. A solid precipitate is produced when a solution 
of common salt, and the nitrate of silver, also in solu- 

ion, are presented to each other. 

16. Again a liquid aggregate may be produced, by 
adding and briskly triturating together, equal parts of 
sulphate of magnesia and muriate of ammonia. 

17. Put thirty grains of phosphorus into a Florence 
flask, with three or four ounces of water. Place the 
ressel over a lamp, and give it a boiling heat. Balls of 



136 * EXPERIMENTS. 

fire will soon be seen to issue through the water, after 
the manner of an artificial fire-work, attended with the 
most beautiful confiscations. 

18. Prepare a mixture of equal, parts of lump sugar 
and oxygenated muriate of potash; put a small quantity 
of this mixture upon a plate or a tile; then dip a fine 
glass rod or tobacco pipe into a phial of sulphuricjacid, 
*o as to convey the smallest quantity of the acid; witii 
this touch the powder, and an immediate burst of flame 
will be the consequence. 

19. Pour boiling water upon a little red cabbage 
sliced, and when cold decant the clear infusion. Di 
vide the infusion into three wine glasses. To one adc 
a solution of alum, to the second a solution of potash, 
and to the third a few drops of muriatic acid. The li 
quor in the first glass will assume a purple, the seconc 
a bright green, and the third a beautiful crimson. Here 

nstance of three different colours from the same 
vegetable infusion, merely by the addition of three co 
lour lean fluids. 

20. Into a wine glass of water put a few drops oi 

little dilute solution of sul 
phate of iron into and by pouring* these twe 

colourless fluids i uful deep blue coloui 

will be immediately produced, which is the true Prus 
sian blue. 

21. Spread a piece of tinfoil, such as is used for coat 
ing electrical jars, k paper; pour : 

ty of soiution* of nitrate of copper upon it. Fold 
quickly; and wrap it : i ne pa- 

per, more effectually '■ atmospheric air. 

it then upon a I >rt time combus- 

tion will commence, and the tin will inflame. 

Take three parts of ni f potash, and one 

of sulphur; all of which should be thoroughly dry; then 

her in a warm mortar. 

i fulminating powder, 

If a lit' powder be placed upon a fire-shovel, 



EXPERIMENTS. 137 

over a hot fire, it gradually blackens, and at last melts, 
At that instant it explodes with a violent report. 

23. To a glass of water suspected to contain carbonic 
acid, add a small quantity of any of the other acids. If 
carbonic acid be present, it will become visible by a 
sparkling appearance on the sides of the glass, and sur- 
face of the fluid. 

24. Prepare two glasses of rain water, and into one 
)f them drop a single drop of sulphuric acid. ' Pour a 
ittle nitrate of silver into the other glass, and no change 
will be perceptible. Pour some of the same solution 
nto the first glass, and a white precipitate of sulphate 
)f silver will appeal*. 

25. Prepare two glasses as in the last experiment, 
md into one-of them put a drop or two of muriatic acid. 
Proceed as before, and a precipitate of muriate of sil- 
ver will be produced. 

26. Mix one ounce of litharge of lead with one drachm 
of pulverized muriate of ammonia, and submit the mix- 
;ure, to a red heat in a clean tobacco-pipe. The in- 
crease of temperature will separate the ammonia in the 
brm of gas, and the muriatic acid will combine with 
-he lead. When the compound is well melted, pour it 
nto a metallic cup, and you will have the true muriate 
of lead, of a bright yellow colour, the brilliancy of 
which may be much heightened by grinding it as usual 
with oil. In this state it forms the colour called patent 
v r ellow« 

27. Take one ounce of red lead, and half a drachm 
of charcoal in powder, incorporate them well in a mor- 
tar, and $hen fill the bowl of a tobacco-pipe with the 
mixture. Submit it to an intense heat in a common 
fire, and, when melted, pour it out upon a slab. The 
result will be metallic lead completely revived. 

28. Take a little red lead, expose it to an intense 
heat in a crucible, and pour it out when melted. The 
result will be metallic glass, and wijl furnish an exam- 
pie of the vitrification of metals. 

M 2 



138 EXPERIMENTS. 

M-ips of dyed linen cloth, of different 
coloui ed into a phial oi ed muriatic 

acid, the colours will be quickly discharged? for there 
are few colours that can resist the energetic effect ot 
This experiment may be considered as a 
complete example of the process of bleaching coloured 

Take a piece of blue linen cloth, that will bleach 

I ed muriatic acid, dip the tip of the finger 

Nation of muriate of tin, and press it while wet 

with the solution, upon a strip of this cloth. After an 

interval of a few minutes, immerse the cloth in the 

phial of liquid oxygenized muriatic acid, and when it 

named in it the usual time, it will be found that 

the spot, which was wet with the muriate of tin, has 

preserved its original colour, while the rest of the cloth 

has become white. 

31. Dip a piece of white calico in a strong solution 
of acetate of iron; dry it by the fire, and lay it aside for 
three or four days. After this, wash it well in hot 
', and then dye it black, by boiling it for ten mi- 
ni a strong decoction of Brazil wood. If the 
>e now dried, any figures printed upon it with a 
ilution of muriate of tin, will appear of s 
, although the ground will remain s 
:k. 
lve four drachms of sulphate of iron in one 
pint of cold n add aboi hms of lime 

in powder, and two drachms of finely pulverized indi 
ring the mixture occasionally for 12 or 14 hours 
trite calico b 1 in this solution 

m unites, it will l>< n: andxif expo 

i qnlj for a rev seconds, this wiL 
i a permanent blue. 

tnersed in a solution oi 
sulph ik solu 

tion of nt colour will be 

produced, buff of the calico printers. 



EXPERIMENTS. 139 

S4. Boil equal parts of arnotto and common potash 
with water, till the whole are dissolved. This will pro- 
duce the pale reddish buff, so much in use, and sold 
under the name of nankeen dye. 

35. If muriate of tin, newly made, be added to a so- 
lution of indigo in sulphuric acid, the oxygen of the in- 
digo will be absorbed, and me solution instantly con- 
verted to a green. It is on the same principle that 
muriate of tin is employed in cleansing discoloured 
leather furniture; as it absorbs the oxygen, and the 
eather is restored to its natural colour. 

36. Take a" piece of very dark olive-coloured linen 
:hat has been dyed with fustic, quercitron bark, or 
weld, and spot it in several places with a colourless so- 
ution of muriate of tin. Wherever the cloth has been 
:ouched with this solution, the original colour will be 
iischarged, and spots of a bright yellow will appeal' in 
ts stead. 

37. Dip a piece of white calico in a cold solution of 
julphate of iron, and suffer it to become entirely dry. 
Then imprint any figures upon it with a strong solu- 
tion of colourless citric acid, and allow this also to dry. 

f the piece be then well washed in pure warm water, 
md afterwards boiled in a decoction of logwood, the 
ground will be dyed either of a slate or black colour, 
iccording to the metallic solution, while the printed 
igures will remain beautifully white. This experiment 
s designed to show the effect of acids in discharging 
vegetable colour. 

38. If lemon juice be dropped upon any kind of buff 
colour, the dye will be instantly discharged. The ap- 
plication of this acid, by means of the block, is another 
method by which calico-printers give the white spots 
or figures to piece goods. The crystallized acid, in a 
itate of solution, is generally used for this purpose. 
These few experiments will give the student some idea 
of the nature of calico-printing. 

39. Take a slip of blue litmus paper, dip it into ace- 



1 10 EXPERIMENTS. 

ml it will immediately become red. ! 

lergman it will de- 
sulphuric acid, even if the water 
contain only one part of acid, to thirty-five thousand 
Litmus paper, which has been thus 
changed by imm< a good 

►r the alkalies; for, if it be dipped into a fluid con- 
taining the smallest portion of alkali, the red will dis- 
appear, and the paper be restored to its original blue 
colour. 

40. Take a slip of turmeric paper, anjl dip it into 
any alkaline solution; this will change the yellow to a 
deep brown. In many cases turmeric is preferable to 
litmus paper for detecting alkali in solution, as it sutlers 
no change from carbonate of lime, which is often found 
in mineral waters. This paper wity deteet the pn- 

of soda, though it should amount to no more than 
>0th part of the water. The paper thus changed 

by an alkali, would, if dried, be still useful as a test for 
. as these restore its original yellow. 

41. Write upon paper, with a diluted solution of mu- 
>f copper; when dry, it will not be visible, but on 

being warmed before the fire, the writing will become 
•autiful yellow. 

42. x i a solution of muriate of eobalt, and 
the writing while dry, will not be perceptible; but it 

I the fire, it will then gradually I 

id if the muriate of cobalt in the usual 

I he letters will appear of an elegant green colour. 

a landscape with Indian ink, and paint the 

foliage of the vegetables with muriate of cobalt, the 

at used in experiment No. 42, and some of 

the flowers with cobalt, and others with mu- 

>per. While this picture is cold, it will ap- 

to be an outline of a landscape, or winter scene; 

warmed, the trees and flowers will be 

display r natural colours, which they will pre- 

they continue warm. This may bt 

often repeated, 



EXPERIMENTS. 



141 



44. Write with blue nitrate of silver, which when dry 
pill be entirely invisible; hold the paper over a vessel 
ontaining sulphate of ammonia, and the writing* will 
.ppear very distinct. The letters will shine with the 

letallic brilliancy of silver. 

45. Write with a weak solution of sulphate of iron; 
et it dry, and it will.be invisible. By dipping 1 a feather 
a tincture* of galls, and drawing the wet feather over 
he letters, the writing will be restored, and appear 
lack. 

46. Write with a similar solution, and when dry wash 
he letters in the same way with prussiate of potash, and 
hey will be restored of a beautiful blue. 

Fill a glass jar with oxymuriatic acid gas. If 
dckel, arsenic, or bismuth in powder, be thrown into 
as, and the temperature of the atmosphere be 
lot lower than 70°, the metal will inflame, and conti- 
nue to burn with the most brilliant combustion. 

48. Into a large glass jar, inverted upon a flat brick 
ile, and containing near its top a branch of fresh rose- 

or any other such shrub, moistened with water, 
xe a flat thick piece of heated iron, on which 
-ome gum benzoin in gross powder. The ben- 
d, in consequence of the heat, will be sepa- 
ated, and ascend in white fumes, which will at length 
condense, and form a most. beautiful appearance upon 
..es of the vegetable. This will serve as an ex- 
ample of sublimation. 

49. Fill a glass tumbler half Ml of lime water; then 
te into it frequently with the mouth open; at the 

same time stirring it with a piece of glass. The fluid, 
which before was perfectly transparent, will presently 
become quite white, and, if suffered to remain at rest, 
real chalk will be deposited. 

50. Mix a little acetate of lead with an equal portion 
of alum; both in fine powder: stir them together with a 
bit of glass or wood, and no chemical change will be 
perceptible; but if they be rubbed together in a mortar, 



142 EXPERIMENTS. 

the two solids will operate on each other; an intimate 
union will take place, and a fluid will be product 

51. Put a little common magn< a-cup upon 
the hearth, and suddenly pour over it as much concen- 
trated sulphuric acid as will cover the magnesia. In 
an instant the mixture will take fire. 

52. If a few pounds of a mixture of iron filings and 
sulphur be made into a paste with water, and buried 
in the ground for a few hours, the water will 
composed with so much rapidity, that combustion and 

ill be the consequence, and an artificial volcano 
will be produced. 

53. Put a little spirits of wine in a tea- cup, set it on 

In a short time 
an aqueous vapour will ion the 

inside of the glass, which, In means of a dry sponge, 
maybe collected, and its*, Thij 

may be adduced a? an example of the formation of wa 
ter by combustion. 

54. Pour a little water into a phial containing aboui 
an ounce of olive od. Shak il, and if the con- 
tents be observed, we shall find ' - >n has taker 
place. Hut potash be added 
and the phi ' natior 
of the i affinity 
of the alkcii 

55. Drop small quan- 
tity of solution of nitrate; of a me- 

branching 1 out in 
furnishing an example 
of metallic revii 

56 f lead in about i 

solution. Ifthii 

:cce of zinc sus- 

composition 

\ ill bt 

amine, 

zinc. 



EXPERIMENTS. 143 

57. Put a table spoonful of aether into a moistened 
bladder, and let the neck of the bladder be closely tied. 
If hot water be then poured upon it, or if it be held to 
the fire, the aether will expand, and the bladder become 
inflated. 

58. Place a lighted wax taper within a narrow glass 
jar, then take a phial of carbonic acid gas, and cau- 
tiously pour it into the jar containing the taper. This 
being an invisible gas, the operator will appear to in- 
vert merely an empty vessel, though the taper will be 
as effectually and instantaneously extinguished, as if 
water itself had been used. 

59. Make a little charcoal perfectly dry, pulverize it 
very fine, and put it in a warm tea-cup. If some strong 
nitrous acid be now poured upon it, a combustion and 
inflammation will immediately ensue. 

60. Put a bit of phosphorus into a small phial, then 
fill it one-third with boiling olive oil, and cork it close, 
Whenever the stopper is taken out in the night, light 
will be evolved, sufficient to show the hour upon a 
watch. 

61. Take a glass tube with a bulb, in form of a com- 
mon thermometer; fill it with cold water, and suspend 
it by a string. If the bulb be frequently and conti- 
nually moistened with pure sulphuric aether, the water 
will presently be frozen, even in summer. 

62. Dissolve five drachms of muriate of ammonia, 
and five drachms of nitre, both finely powdered, in 
two ounces of water. A thermometer immersed in the 
solution, will show that the temperature is reduced be- 
low 32°. If a thermometer tube, filled with water, be 
now suspended within it, the water will soon be as 
effectually frozen, as in the last experiment. 

63. A diluted solution of pure potash will speedily 
remove greasy spots. Spots from wax candles, or white 
paint, may be removed by spirits of turpentine. 

64. Dissolve common hard soap in alcohol, drop the 
Solution into distilled water, and no change will be pei 



144 EXPERIMENTS. 

ceptible. If the water be what is called hard water, 
a milkiness will instantly be produced, more or les^ 
opaque as the water is more or less pure. This effect 
is owing to the alkali in the soap quitting' the oil when 
water contains any substance for which it has a stronge : 
affinity than for oil. All acids and all earthy and me- 
tallic salts decompose soap. Their presence occasions 
the property called hardness in water. 

65. Cooking utensils, when made of certain metals, 
sometimes communicate a poisonous quality to the vic- 
tuals put into them. If copper be suspected to exis* 
in any liquid, as for instance in the vinegar in which 
pickles are kept, it may be immediately detected by 
pouring into the acid a solution of pure ammonia. Ire 
this case a beautiful azure colour will be formed, and 
it will be dangerous to make any use of the vinegar or 
pickles. 

66. Water kept in leaden vessels, ,pr which passes 
through leaden pipes, is frequently injurious to health 
By adding to the suspected water about half its bulk of 
water impregnated with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, s» 
dark brown or blackish colour will be given to the 
liquid, if lead be present; a precipitate will afterwards 
be found; and upon applying the heat of a blow-pipe 
to it, globules of metallic lead are yielded. 

67. Flake white or ceruse, is frequently added to 
wines and spirits, by unprincipled dealers, in order to 
correct the acidity of fermentation. Many fatal acci- 
dents have happened from the use of such beverages 
The following test will discover the presence of this 
dangerous article. Put into a small phial, sixteen grains 
of <by sulphuret of lime, and twenty grains of acidulous 
tartritc of potash (cream of tartar.) The phial is ther 
to be filled up with water, well corked, and shaken fox 
eight or ten minutes. When some of this test, afte- 
being decanted clear from the powder, is poured into 

{uor, a dark coloured precipitate vril 
be formed, if lead be present. 



EXPERIMENTS. 145 

i 68. Melt sulphur in a small iron' ladle, and carry it 
nto a dark room in the state of fusion. If an ounce 
■>r two of copper filings be now thrown in, light will 
>e evolved. 

69. Take a phial with solution of sulphate of zinc, 
•md another containing" a little liquid ammonia, both 
ransparent fluids. By mixing- them a curious pheno- 
nenon may be perceived — the zinc will be immediately 
Precipitated in a white mass, and, if then shaken, al- 
most as instantly be re-dissolved. 

• 70. Add a few grains of oxygenized muriate of pot- 
Ash to a tea-spoon full or two of alcohol, drop one or 
'wo drops of sulphuric acid tipon the mixture, and the 
Vhole will burst into flame, forming a very beautiful 
Appearance. 

: 71. If twenty grains of phosphorus, cut very small, 
aid mixed with forty grains of finely powdered zinc, 
; )e put into four drachms of water, and two drachms 
4f concentrated sulphuric acid be added thereto, bub- 
bles of inflamed phosphuretted hydrogen gas will quick- 
ly cover the whole surface of the fluid in succession, 

ng a real fountain of fire. 
•' 72. If flowers, or any other figures, be drawn upon 
\ riband or silk with a solution of nitrate of silver, and 
he silk (moistened with water) be then exposed to the 
iction of hydrogen gas, the silver will be revived," and 
the figures firmly fixed upon the silk, will become vi- 
sible, and shine with metallic brilliancy. 
\ 73. By proceeding in the same manner, and using^a 
Solution of gold in nitro-muriatic acid, silks may be per- 
manently gilt at a most insignificant expense, and will 
Exhibit an appearance the most beautiful that can be 
Conceived. 

j 74. If a small theraBfeieter be placed in a glass ves- 
ntaining about an ounce of a solution of soda, on 
: ' ient quantity of muriatic acid to saturate 

* soda, the mercury in the thermometer will expand, 



146 EXPERIMENTS. 

affording an instance of heat being" produced by the 
formation of a salt. 

75. Let the last experiment be repeated with thr 
carbonate of soda, instead of pure soda; the mercury 
will now sink in the thermometer. Here, though the 
same kind of salt is formed, cold is produced. 

76. Fill a thermometer tube with tepid water, ane 
immerse it in a glass vessel of water of the same tern 
perature, containing a mercurial thermometer. If th» 
whole be now placed in a bed of snow, or in a freezing 
mixture, the water in the tube will suffer a progressiva 
diminution of volume, until it arrives at about 40°; i 1 
will then begin to expand gradually, until it become 
solid. This shows how ice is able to swim on the sur 
face of water. 

77. It is an interesting experiment to place a glow f 
worm within a jar of oxygen gas, in a dark room. The 
insect will shine with much greater brilliancy than 
does in atmospheric air, and appear more alert. A- 
the luminous appearance depends on the will of the 
animal, this experiment affords an instance of the sti 
mulus which this gas communicates to the animal sys 
tern. 

78. If a morsel of dry nitrate of silver, (lunar caustic I 
be laid on a piece of ^burning charcoal, the metallic sail 
will immediately deflagrate, throw out the most beau 
tiful scintillations that can be imagined, and the sur 
face of the charcoal will be richly coated with metallk 
sijver. 

79. Drop a piece of phosphorus about the size of 
nto a tumbler of hot water, and from a bladder,, 

furnished with a stop-cock, force a stream of oxyge^ 
directly upon it. This will ^fprd the most brilliar>1 
combustion under water that fflfbe imagined. 

80. Drop a little leaf-gold into nitro-muriatic acid.j 
and it will instantly disappear. This experiment i 

to show the great solubility of the metaK 
1 to a proper menstruum 



EXPERIMENTS. 147 

81. Pour a little purified nitric acid into one wine- 
glass, and muriatic acid into another, and drop a little 
eaf-gold into each. Here neither of these corrosive 
cids will act at all upon the metal, the gold will re- 
gain untouched: but pour the whole contents of the 
wo glasses together, and the metal will disappear, and 
e as effectually dissolved as in the last experiment. 

82. Put into a wine-glass about a scruple of oxidized 
langanese and potash, and an equal quantity of the 
stme compound into another glass. On one pour hot, 
nd on the other cold water. The hot solution will 
xhibit a beautiful green colour, the cold one a deep 
mrple. 

83. If a small portion of the same compound be put 
lto several glasses, and water at different temperatures 
e poured upon each, the contents of each glass will 
xhibit a different shade of colour. This experiment 
flfords another instance of metals producing various 
olours according to their different states of oxidize- 
lent 

84. Into a glass of water containing a small portion 
f common salt, drop some of a clear solution of nitrate 
f silver, and an insoluble precipitate of muriate of sil- 
er will be produced. This experiment gives an idea 
f the method of analysing mineral waters. Every 100 
rains of this precipitate, when dried, indicate 42 
Tains of common salt. 

85. If a little pure white calomel be rubbed in a 
lass mortar with a little colourless solution of caustic 
mmonia, the whole will become intensely black. 

86. Dissolve about a drachm of pulverized sulphate 
f copper, in a little boiling water, and an equal quan- 
ity of powdered muriate of ammonia in a separate ves- 
el, in hot water. By mixing the contents of the two 
glasses, a quadruple salt will be formed, which gii 
ellow colour to the solution while hot,* and becomes 
"Teen when cold. 

87. If a flat bar of iron be hammered brisklv on an 



1'48 EXPERIMENTS. 

anvil, will soon be so increased, that ; 

1 instantly be in 
flamed. Th s experiment is designed to show, tha 
caloric may be evolved me lion. 

88. If a piece of bright silver be dipped in a solutio 
of sulphate of copper, it will come out unchanged: bu 
if the blade of a clean pen-knife, or any piece of polish 
ed iron, be dipped in the same solution, the iron wii 
instantly put on the appearance of cop 

89. Take the piece of silver employed in the last ex 
periment, hold it in contact with ike iron, and u 

this situation, dip them into the same solution, an 
both will be covered with copper. 

90. Melt together equal parts of copper and antimo 
ny, the one a yellow, the other a white metal, and tin 
alloy that results from this mixtu colon v 
of the violet. 

91. If the grey oxide of antimony be fused in 
cible, we procure a beautiful transparent glass, whic 

188 of antimony. This takes the colon' 
of the hyacinth. 

If antimony be well fused upon charcoal, and a 

the moment when its surface is not covered with an\ 

hrow it suddenly upon the ground 

which it divid li, burn wit! 

ly flame, throwing out on all sides brilliai 

sparks, different from that of any other m< 

he dry nitrate of silver in pure water; nd< 
■\ liitje oil of turpentine, shake the mixture, and cork 
ubmit the phial, with its contents to the hein 
n hour, when the metal will 1> 
inside of the phial, whpre the oil r< 
ineous sotytion, will beb< 

ng a metallic rh 
>hial. 

solution of 
gold in distilled water, and dry it in tl 
will not be altered b 



EXPERIMENTS, 149 

gus: but if another piece of silk be dipped in this solu~ 
tion, and exposed while ivet to a current of hydrogen 
gas, instant signs of metallic reduction will appear; the 
colour will change from yellow to green, and a brilliant 
film of reduced gold will soon glitter on its surface. 

95. Dissolve some crystals of muriate of tin in distil- 
led water, then dip a piece of white silk in the solution, 
and dry it in the air. If this be now immersed in hy- 
drogen gas, no change will be observed; but if it be 
exposed while wet to the same current of gas, the re- 
duction will soon commence, attended with a great va- 
riety of beautiful colours, as red, yellow, orange, green, 
and blue, variously intermixed. 

96. If a bit of white silk be immersed in an ethereal 
solution of gold, and dried, the application of phospho- 
rized aether will only impart a brown colour to the silk; 
but if it be placed on the palm of the hand as soon as 
the phosphorus begins to fame, and breathed on for a 
considerable time, the brown will be succeeded by a 
purple tinge, and the metallic lustre of the gold will 
soon begin to appear. 

97. With a needle pass a thread through a small bit 
of phosphorus, previously freed from moisture, by im- 
mersing it in alcohol. If this be suspended in an aque- 
ous solution of nitro-muriate of gold, in a few minutes 
the phosphorus will become covered with gold. 

98. If a piece of white silk be dipped in an aqueous 
solution of nitro-muriate of gold, and exposed while 
wet to sulphurous acid gas, the wdiole piece will in a 
few seconds, be covered with a coat of reduced gold, 
which remains permanent. 

99. Dip a piece of white calico in an aqueous solu- 
tion of acetate of lead, and then drop a little solution 
of sulphuret of potash upon it. If this be now placed 
in the palm of the hand, the lead will be observed 
gradually to revive, and will soon be reduced to its 
metallic state. 

100. Dissolve some sulphuret of potash in alcohol, 

N 2 



150 tPERIMENl 

and immerse a slip of white silk in the solution. If a 
drop of an aqueous solution of sulphate of manganese 
be now applied, films of metallic manganese, bright as 
silver, will instantly appear. 

101. Easy method of breaking glass in any required 
direction. Dip a piece of worsted thread into spirit of 
turpentine; wrap it round the glass in the direction that 

.you require it to be broken, and then set fire to the 
thread: or, apply a red hot wire round the glass, and 
if it does not immediately crack, throw cold water on 
it, whilst the wire remains hot. Ey this means, the 
glass that is broken, may often be fashioned and ren 
useful for a variety of purposes. 

102. To freeze water in the midst of summer. Take 
eleven drachms of muriate of ammonia, ten of nitrate of 
potash, and sixteen of sulphate of soda: reduce each of 
these salts, separately, to a fine powder, and mix them 
gradually in a thin glass vessel, with five ounces of 
water, (the capacity of tile vessel should be only just 
large enough to hold the materials,) the result will be 
that as the salts dissolve, the cold produced will sink u 
thermometer immersed in it, at or below freezing; and 
a little water, about half an ounce, in a thin test-tube, 
when immersed in t#ie solution, will be^frozen in about 
five minutes. Five parts of muriate of ammonia, five 
of nitre, and eight of sulphate of soda, mixed with six- 

of water, at the usual temperature, reduce the 
thermometer from 50 to about 10. The salts, to pro 
heir fullest effect, should be recently crystallized 
in fine powder, and containing as mueh water of crys- 
tallization as possible, but not damp. 

Singular effect of charcoal. Take fresh prepared 
animal charcoal, which may be obtained by heating to 
-t compaet beef or mutton bones in : 
ii a cover has been luted, with a smali 
■ it, to allow the volatile substances to es 
Ik n no more flame issues from the hole 
id continvie the heat for a 1 



EXPERIMENTS, 151 

lalf an hour. Then withdraw the crucible from the 

Are, and place it in a dry situation till it is sufficiently 

;ool to be handled, and transfer its contents without 

oss of time into a perfectly dry bottle, in which the 

:harcoal may be kept, if well stopped, for any length 

)f time without injury. The properties of this charcoal 

powder are very striking 1 . If you mix an ounce and a 

iialf of it with about a quart of common vinegar, or any 

fcind of wine, a thick froth ri&s to the surface, and the 

iquor, after having stood about twenty-four Jiours, be- 

j '•ins to lose its colour, and in three or four days it will be 

I bund, after filtration, to be quite clear and colourless. 

! The filthiest and most putrid ditch water may in like 

manner be rendered perfectly limpid, inodorous, and 

jiinsipid, and rancid oils are deprived of their smell and 

taste by repeated filtration through a stratum of this 

prepared charcoal. Hence also its peculiar efficacy as 

k dentrifice; its particles are sufficiently hard to remove 

the concretions from the teeth without injuring the 

enamel, while it neutralizes and entirely destroys the 

ibetor with which the breath is not unfrequently tainted 

ous tooth- 



QUESTIONS 



AND OTHER EXERCISES ON THE FOREGOING 
SUMMARY OF FACTS AND EXPERIMENTS. 



GENERAL*PRINCIPLES. 

1. What is the object of chemistry? 

2. What are the chemical properties ol 
matter? 

3. Hqw is substance defined? 
' 4. What is the difference between a simple 

and a compound body? 

5. What are the physical properties of mat- 
ter? 

6. Explain the terms synthesis and ana- 
lysis. 

7. What is chemical affinity? 

8. Enumerate the substances regarded a? 
simple substances. 

9. What is meant by the term solvent, or 
menstruum? 

10. What is the difference between simple 
and compound affinity? 

11. What is understood by attraction o 
cohesion, or aggregation? 

12. What is attraction of gravitation? 

13. What is the difference between a me 
chanical mixture and a chemical solution? 



QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 153 

Explain the terms saturation and super- 
saturation. 

15. How is solution promoted? 

16. Give an example of solution, and also 
one of mixture. 

17. What is the difference between steel 
and black-lead? 

IS. Explain the difference between gravi- 
tation and contiguous attraction. 
[n 19. What are the effects of cherfiical affinity 
in the operations of nature? 

20. Give an example of composition or syn- 
thesis, and of decomposition or analysis. 

21. How many kinds of analysis are there? 
Give an example of each. 

23. Illustrate simple and compound affinity 
by an example. 

24. Explain electric and magnetic attrac- 
tion. 

I 25. What is the result of the different mo- 
(difications of the attraction of cohesion? 
:' 26. Give an example of a solid, and of a 
fluid body. 

21. Illustrate the attraction of gravitation 
an example. 

What is the effect on fluid bodies of a 
, sudden exertion of the attraction of cohesion? 

What is the effect when its force isj 
, exerted more slowly? 

What islhis last process termed, and 



154 QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE- 

what the regular figured masses which are 
produced? 

LIGHT-CALORIC. 

31. What opinions are entertained respect- 
ing caloric, or the matter of heat? 

32. What is light? 

33. What are the effects of caloric upon 
metals? 

34. What is the difference between fusion 
and vitrification? 

35. What is the difference between expan- 
sion and fluidity? 

36. Are bodies heavier when united with 
caloric? 

37. What is meant by the freezing and 
boiling points of the thermometer? 

38. How many sources of heat are there? 

39. What is animal heat? 

40. What substances are termed good con- 
ductors of caloric? 

41. Why are some bodies more easily 
heated than others? 

42. Enumerate those which arc termed bad 
conductors. 

43. In what manner can a perpetual motion 
be produced from the effects of electricity, 
which will continue for several years? 

44. W n rloes caloric become perceptible? 

45. What instruments are-ped for c!< 
mining the relative degrees otheat? 



QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 155 

, 46. What effects has the natural operation 
)f freezing upon surrounding bodies? 

47. Why will ice, in summer, when wrap- 
ped in flannel, last longer than when exposed 
;o the air? 

48. Why are thin glass vessels less liable to 
Dreak than thick ones, when exposed to heat? 

49. Why is the greatest degree of heat 
irst discovered at the top of a vessel of cold 
•vater when placed over a fire? 

50. Explain the reason why deep lakes do 
lot freeze in winter. 

51. What is evaporation? 

52. Describe the effects of heat in the op- 
eration of evaporation, distillation, and subli- 
mation. 

53. What is the cause of water becoming 
enlarged by freezing? 

54. Give an example of the force of vapour. 

55. What is the reason that water does not 
become hotter by the contiijpation of boiling 
in the common way? 

56. How can water be rendered of equal 
temperature with red-hot iron? 

57. What is the difference of effect pro- 
duced by placing hot water on the surface of 
«old water in a tube, and disposing of it at the 
bottom? 

OXYGEN. 

58. How is oxygen obtained? 



QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 

59. What is the proportion of oxygen in 
atmospheric air? 

60. What are the effects of this gas in com- 
bustion? 

61. What would be the best method of ex- 
tinguishing chimneys when on fire? 

62. What effect has oxygen upon the 
metals? 

63. Are oxides heavier than the metals from 
which they are produced? 

64. For what substances has oxygen a 
strong affinity? 

65. What proportion of oxygen enters into 
the composition of water? 

66. What taste does oxygen give to bodies? 

67. In what manner can oxygen gas be pro- 
duced? 

68. What are those substances called to 
which oxygen imparts the acid character? 

HYDROGEN. 

♦if). Is hydrogen gas inflammable? 

70. Is it capable of supporting combustion"! 
of itself? 

71. In what manner is hydrogen gas ob- 

ght of hydrogep gas? 
What are th< ions of this gas in 

wati 

7 1. Iu what manner ccfti the formation oi 
water be exhibited? 



QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 157 

75. What are the constituent principles of 
:he gas lights? 

76. In what manner is this gas procured 
for lighting of cities? 

77. What is to be guarded against in the 
combustion of hydrogen? 

78. What kind of gas is the fire damp? 

79. Describe the late discovery that has 
been made to prevent the fatal effects of this 
air in mines. 

80. What are the combinations of hydro- 
gen? 

81. Where is sulphuretted hydrogen gas 
found? 

4 CARBON. 

82. In what substance is carbon supposed 
to exist in its greatest purity? 

83. What are the properties of carbonic 
acid gas? 

84. In what combination is carbon most 
commonly met with? 

85. How is charcoal procured, and what 
are its properties? 

* 86. To what purposes has powdered char- 
I coal been applied? 

87. What are the effects of combining car- 
■ bonic acid gas with water? 

88. In what other fluids is this gas found, 
and how does it affect them? 



158 QUE- OB EXER< 

89. How is carbonic acid gas procured? 

90. With what substances does this gt 
combine to form carbonates? 

91. What substances are formed by the con 
bination of carbon* with iron? 

92. What are the effects of carbonic aci 
gas when breathed? 

93. How can this gas be detected and re 
moved from cellars, wells, &c. so as to pr< 
vent the death of workmen? 

94. Into the composition of what substance 
does carbon enter? 

95. What effect has heat upon charcon 
when excluded from air? 

96. What is the* weight of carbonic aci< 
gas? ■ 

97. What effect has nitric acid upon pu 
verized charcoal? . 

METALS. 

98. How are metals distinguished fron 
other bodies? 

99. Enumerate their general properties. 

100. In what manner does caloric act upo< 
metals? 

L01. By what name are they distinguishe- 
when combined with oxygen? 

102. What is meant by the terjns mailer 
bility and ductility? 

103. To what uses are the metallic oxides 
applied? 



QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 159 

104. Enumerate the malleable metals. 

105. Which are the brittle metals that are 
lost easily fused? 

fi 106. Which are those that are fused with 
jfficulty? 

107. Which of the metals have been found 
associated with platina? 

1 108. What is the specific gravity of the 
principal metals? 

109. In what state are the metals found? 

110. How is the ore separated from ac- 
companying fossils? 

111. How from sulphur or arsenic? 

112. In what manner is the metal then re- 
duced to a pure state? 

113. What are the properties of gold? 
■ 114. What is a metallic solution? 

115. What solvent is required for the so- 
lution of gold? 

116. What other substances besides oxy- 
gen do the metals combine with? 

3 117. What are the circumstances attending 
the solution of a metal in an acid? 

118. Are the compounds of metals, or sim- 
iple metals, the most easily melted? 

119. Which of these is the most easily oxi- 
ed? 

120. What solder is used for gold, and 
what for silver ? 

121. What arf* the properties of copper ? 



: 



160 QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 

122. Of what is brass composed, and ii 
what proportions ? 

123. What are the properties of silver ? 

124. What is lunar caustic ? 

125. What are the properties of platina 

126. To what purposes is this metal 
plied ? 

127. What is the colour of the neutral s; 
formed from copper ? 

128. How is the nitrate of copper decom- 
posed? 

129. What are the medicinal properties of 
the salts of copper? 

130. What is an amalgam? 

• 131. What are the properties of mercury? 

132. In what mannej* can mercury be ren- 
dered solid? 

133. For what purposes is mercury used? 

134. What is cinnabar? 

135. With what metal is gold coin alloyed, 
and for what purpose? 

136. What are the properties of iron', and 
how is it separated from the ore ? 

137. What is steel? 

138. How many kinds of steel are there, 
and how are they prepared? 

). What is cast iron? 

1 K). Vv hal is wrought iron, and how made? 

111. What peculiar property has this me- 
tal ? 

1 12, What are the properties of tin? 



QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE, 161 

143. What are its combinations? 

144. For what purpose is tin used? 

145. What effect has nitric acid upon tin- 
oil? 

146. When the nitrate of tin has been dis- 
olved by the sulphuric acid, what substance 
pill precipitate it? 

I 147. What benefits are derived to the dyer 
rom the solution of tin in the nitro-muriatie 
cid? 

148. What is green vitriol, and what its 
jse in dyeing and in making ink? 
i 149. Why does ink become blacker by ex- 
posure to the air? 

150. What colour is produced by an union 
irf Prussic acid and the sulphate of iron? 

151. What effect is produced by an union 
rf sulphur and steel filings when moistened? 

; 152. In what substance is zinc found? 

153. To what purposes is it applied? 

154. Of what is pinchbeck composed? 

155. What is cobalt? 

156. What is the substance called zaffre or 
smalts? 

157. To what purpose is it applied? 

158. Explain the process of making sym- 
pathetic ink from the oxide of cobalt. 

159. In what state is arsenic found? 

160. What are its properties? 

o 2 



161. What effect is produced by applying 
heat to arsenic? 

162. What are the uses of this metal when 
combined with copper, also when combined 
with sulphur? 

163. What preparation is said to be an an- 
tidote to this mineral poison when acciden- 
tally taken into the stomach? 

164. How can arsenic be detected? 

165. State the further uses to which this 
metal is applied. 

166. Where is antimony found? 

. 167. To what purposes is it applied? 
168/ What are the properties of bismuth? 

169. Where is it found? 

170. What is the effect of alloying thb 
metal with others? 

171. What are the properties of lead? 

172. Enumerate the different substances 
formed by an union of oxygen with lead. 

173. How is pure white-lead, or flake- 
white formed? 

174. What effect has this substance upon 
sour win 

175. What effects have such neutralizes 
wines upon the human body? 

176. To what put lead applied? 

177. What is pew 

178. Where is nickel found, and to who 
uses is it applied? 



QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 163 

| 179. In what state does chrome exist, and 
where is it found? 

ISO. What colours are produced by com- 
bining the chromic acid with the metallic ox- 
ides? 

181. In what state is manganese found? 

152. To what purposes is the oxide of 
manganese applied? 

153. Explain the cause of its clearing glass 
of its green colour. 

184. What metals are found in a pure state? 

185. What is the proper solvent for pla- 
tina ? 

186. In what manner is silver plating per- 
formed ? 

187. Of what is the silvering used for 
looking-glasses composed, and what is the 
operation of applying it? 

188. What metal precipitates copper from 
its solution, in a metallic state? 

189. How is verdigris formed, and what is 
its chemical naqie? 

190. What is orpiment, and to what uses 
has it been applied? 

191. What' is realgar? 

192. In what state can a metal be dissolved 
in the acids? 

193. What is the specific gravity of the 
different metals? 



Jbl QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE, 



NITROGEN. 

194. What is nitrogen? 

195. How may it be obtained? 

196. What is the proportion of nitrogr 
atmospheric air? 

197. What are its effects when inhaled? 

198. What are its* combinations with oxy- 
gen? 

199. What is the comparative weight of 
nitrogen gas? 

200. What is nitrous acid? 

201. On what principle does nitrogen gas 
extinguish flame? 

202. What is nitrous gas? 

PHOSPHORUS. 

203. What is phosphorus? 

80 I. What are its effects when gently heat- . 
ed and exposed to common air? 
.205. How is phosphoric acid formed? 

206. In what state does phosphorus e 
jn the, bones of animals? 

207. What is the difference between a 
phuret of sulphur and a sulphuret of phos- 

phoi 

Enumerate the substances produced 

on of phosphorus with oxygen. 

Bed lias phosphorus upon the 

stoma* h when taken in an uncombined state? 



QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 165 

SULPHUR. 

210. Where is sulphur found? 

211. With what substances does sulphur 
nitQ in forming the alkaline sulphurets? 

212. Into what is sulphur converted when 
unit in oxygen gas? 

213. What is the result of its being burnt 
n common air? 

214. With what is sulphur found combined 
n mineral waters? 

215. For what purposes is sulphur em- 
ployed? 

EARTHS. 

216. What are the properties of the earths? 

217. Enumerate the simple earths. 

218. Which of these are the most abun- 
dant? 

219. In what substances is lime found com- 
bined with carbonic acid? 

220. What is quicks-lime? 

221. What effect is produced by sprinkling 
cold water on quick-lime? 

222. What proportion of water will quick- 
lime absorb and yet remain perfectly dry? 

223. What are the appearances of lime-wa- 
ter, and what its properties? 

I . When slacked lime is exposed to the 
air what are the effects produced? 

225. Into the composition of what animal 
substances does lime enter? 



166 QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 

What is the cause of the heat which 
is produced by adding water to quick-lime? 

7. \\ hat is gypsum, or Plaster of Paris? 

8. What is the effect produced on gyp- 
sum by burning? 

I. What are the properties of silex ? 

230. Where is silex found ? 

231. What is its proper menstruum ? 

232. In what other fluid does it become so- 
luble? 

233. Enumerate the compounds which 
have the silecious earth for their bases. 

234. What substance exhibits silex in its 
purest state ? 

235. What is chalcedony or white agate? 

236. What is ittria? 

237. Where is zircon found? 

238. What is glucine ? 

239. What is alumine? 

240. In what other substances is it found 
besides that of alum ? 

241. What are the properties of alumine 
when pure? 

242. To what purposes is it employed? 

;. What is the cause of clays being ge- 

ily found in a moist st,; 

L. What are the properties of stront' 

245. Which are the most generally usi 
of til' 

; . In what state is magnesia generally 



QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 167 

found, and from what is it obtained for com- 
merce) 

247. What substances contain magnesia 
besides Epsom salts? 

24S. By what means can we decompose 
the sulphate of magnesia, so as to obtain a car- 
bonate? 

249. How is pure magnesia obtained? 

250. To what purposes is this earth applied? 

251. From what did barytes take its name, 
nd what are its properties? 

252. For what is this earth used in chemis- 
try? 

253. What objection has been made to the 
opinion that the eartHs and alkalies are me- 
tallic oxides? 

254. What constitutes the principal value 
of marie? 

255. What is the principal ingredient of 
the stones called pebbles? 

256. To what uses are they applied? 

ALKALIES. 

257. What are the general properties oi 
the alkalies? 

25S. What effect have they on the juices of 
vegetables? 

259. How do they act when mixed with 
oil and water? 

260. Enumerate the alkalies. 

261. Which are the two fixed alkalies? 



168 QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 

262. Why is ammonia termed a volatile 
alkali? 

263. Why is potash called a vegetable 
alkali? 

261. Where is potash found besides in vege- 
tables? 

265. How is soda procured? 

266. Where is this alkali found besides in 
sea-weeds? 

2*67. Enumerate the uses to which potash 
and soda are applied. 

268. What is the difference between the 
component parts of hard and soft soap? 

269. In what countries is potash procured? 

270. State the different names given to soda. 

271. What is meant by the mild alkalies? 

272. How may the fixed alkalies be ob- 
tained sufficiently pure for ehemical purposes? 

273. What are the caustic alkalies? 

274. What are the properties of ammonia? 

275. How is ammoniacal gas procured? 

276. What are the constituent parts of am 
monia? 

277. How is ammonia procured? 

278. What general effect have the alkalies 
upon metallic solutions? 

279. What is sal ammoniac; and what new 
alkali bus lately been discovered, and what are 
its properties? 



QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 169 

ACIDS. 

280. What are the properties of th& acids? 

281. With what do they combine? 

282. To what do they owe their origin? 

283. How have they been classed? 

284. By what name are bodies denominated 
vhich form acids from combustion or oxidation ? 

285. If an acidifiable basis be perfectly 
saturated with oxygen, in what syllable does 
:he acid terminate? 

286. If t^he basis predominate, how is it 
germinated? 

287. If oxygen be combined with an acidi- 
fiable basis in so small a degree as not to pro- 
duce acid properties, what is it called? 

28S. How is sulphuric acid procured? 

289. What are its properties? 

290. When the sulphuric acid is united 
with earths or other substances, what are these 
compounds colled? 

291. Illustrate this by an example. 

292. How is muriatic acid obtained? 

293. What is oxymuriatic acid? 

2P4. What opinion has professor Davy sup- 
ported respecting this compound? 

295. By whom has this opinion been op- 
i posed, and upon what ground? 

296. What effect has oxymuriatic acid upon 
i vegetable colours? 



170 QUESTIONS FOR EXERC 

207. To what purposes has this property 
been applied? 

298? State the process of bleaching by the 
aid of this acid. 

299. What means were discovered for de- 
stroying the effects of the suffocating odour 
peculiar to this gas? 

300. What are the substances used in pro- 
curing oxymuriatic acid gas for bleaching? 

301. What are the medical properties of 
this gas? 

302. How is it procured for chemical pur- 
poses? 

303. Whateffect has this gas upon the metals? 

304. What are the properties of the nitric 
acid? 

305. What are its effects on the metals? 

306. What is aqua regia? 

307. What are the component parts of car- 
bonic acid? 

30S. With which of these earths is tlii^ 
acid found combined in nature? 

309. Mention some of the natural waters 
in which it is found. 

310. Are there any other combinations in 
which this acid is found? 

311. State the composition of phosphoric acid 

312. How is it procured? 

313. What are its appearances when de 
prived of water? 

314. In what substances is oxalic acid found 



QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 171 

315. How can it be procured artificially? 

316. JFor what purposes is this acid used? 

317. What is the composition of the cream 
of tartar of the shops? 

318. Where is it found? 

319. How is the tartarous acid procured? 

320. What is the composition of Derby- 
shire spar? 

321. What peculiar property has the fluoric 
acid, and to what purpose has it been applied? 

322. How is this acid obtained? 

; 323. What is the composition of boracic 
1 acid? 

324. How is the acetgus acid obtained? 

325. What is acetic acid? 

326. With what substances does the acetic 
acid combine? 

327. What are the properties of the acetic 
acid? 

328. Where is the citric acid found, and 
' for what purpose has it been used in medicine? 

329. What other use has been made of the 
citric acid? 

330. How is the malic acid obtained? 

331. What is the composition of the Prus- 
sic acid, and how is it prepared? 

332. .What is Prussian blue? 

333. How is benzoic and succinic acid pre- 
pared? 

334. How is sebaccic and camphoric acid 
obtained? 



172 QUESTIONS FOR EXERc 

335. Where is the gallic acid found? 

336. What are its properties? 

337. What is the process for making 
writing ink? 

8. What name has the acetic acid ob- 
tained when combined with empyreumatic oil 
and bitumen? 

339. What are the properties of the pyro- 
ligneous acid? 

340. From what is it prepared? 

SALTS. 

341. What is a salt? 

342. What is a neutral salt? 

343. What is meant by the term sulphate? 

344. What by the terms nitrates and carbo- 

345. Give the chemical names of the fol- 
lowing substances, viz. Glauber salts, gypsum, 

i copperas, table-salt, chalk, marble, and 
saltpetre. 

346. What are the properties 'of the muri- 
ates? 

Illustrate this by an example. 
3. Which are the principal muriatic salts? 
1 To wha as the muriate of bary- 

and what are its medicinal 
proper!] « 

I What are the uses of the muriate of 
tod a? i 



QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 173 

351. When a salt contains more of an acid 
han of the other substance with which it is 
combined, how is such compound distinguish- 
ed? 

352. When the salt contains less, how is it 
mown? 

353. Illustrate these two cases by an ex- 
imple in each. 

354. When a salt is produced by the union 
3f an acid with two bases, how is such salt 
distinguished, and what names does it take? 

355. When the base of a metallic salt con- 
ains an excess of oxygen, how is it distin- 
guished? 

356. In what other instance is- the adjunct 
3xy used? 

357. In what syllable does a salt terminate, 
which is composed of an acid that ends in ous? 

358. Illustrate this by an example. 

359. Where is the sulphate of lime found, 
md for what is it used? 

360. What is alum, and where is it foifnd? 

361. What is the nature of the sulphites? 

362. For what striking property is the ni- 
trate of potash distinguished? 

363. Which are the most common carbo- 
nates? 

364. What are the most remarkable pro- 
perties of the fluates? 

365. Enumerate those which are most com- 
mon? 

P 2 



17 i 

the fluate of lime found? 
367. Which is the most common of the 
phosphoric salts, and where is it found? 

. By what properties are the acetates 
distinguished? 

369. Which are the principal acetic salts? 

370. What is the process for forming the 
tate of lead? 

371. How may a mild salt be formed from 
two corrosive substances? 

372. Give me a definition of an oxide. 

373. What substances are capable of be- 
coming oxides? 

374. How is an oxide of sulphur formed? 

375. What is an oxide of hydrogen? 

376. How is nitrous oxide procured? 

377. What aVe its properties? 

378. What is nitric oxide, and how pro- 
-■(I? 

379. What are its propert 

3*>0. What is the effect of uniting oxygen 
with nitrous gas? 

381. Whether is an oxide or its primitive 
metal heaviest? 

382. Give me an instance of an animal and 
vegetable oxide. 

>. Which of the metals do not become 
s by exposure to the open air? 
I. Which arc those most easily oxidized 
5. What substances are robbed of I 
oxygen by a combination with the metals? 



VTESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 175 



COMBUSTION. 

5. What is meant by combustion? 
3S7. To what bodies is the term combus- 
tible applied? 

388. What is a simple combustible? 

389. Enumerate the simple combustibles. 

390. What is a compound combustible, and 
how formed? 

391. Enumerate the incombustible sub- 
stances. 

392. From whence is the heat derived 
which is produced during combustion? 

393. Explain the reason. 

394. Distinguish between compound and 
simple supporters of combustion. 

395. Explain the difference between oxi- 
dized and oxygenized. 

WATER. 

396. What are the component parts of 
water? 

397. How is it decomposed? 

. Illustrate this by an example. 

399. Exemplify the process of forming wa- 
ter from itPelementary principles. 

400. In what cases does water take the 
solid form? 






170 QUE 

•101. How can oil and water be made to 
unite? 

:. By what means can we judge of the 
quality of water without the aid of chemical 
analysis? 

403. What is mineral water? 

404. What are the substances found in mi- 
neral waters? 

405. Which of the salts arc .most common 
in these waters? 

406. Why does lime-water become turbid 
by breathing into it? 

407. Which of the alkalies, and of the 
earths, have been found uncombined in mi- 
neral water? 

408. What effect has carbonic acid on wa 
ter when combined with it? 

409. Where is the sulphate of magnesia 
found in great abundance? 

VEGETABLE SUBSTANC1 

410. What is the most frequent. ingrc<; 
m vegetables? 

41 1. From what fruits are jellies procured? 

412. What vegetable substances yield tan 
or tannin? 

413. What are the properties*) f tan? 
-111. In what vegetable is the bitter prin- 
ciple most conspicuous? 



QUESTIONS FOR EXERCISE. 1*7 

415. Where is gluten and starch found? 

416. How may these be obtained separate- 

y- 

417. In what state does oil exist -in vege- 
ables? 

418. How are fixed oils obtained? 

419. What is an essential or volatile oil? 

420. What are the properties of the essen- 
ial oils? 

421. How. is a volatile oil distinguished 
rom a fixed oil? 

422. Describe the properties of camphor. 

423. In what manner is wax obtained? 

424. How is resin produced? 

425. What are the substances called resins? 

426. What is Indian rubber; and where 
)fftained? 

427. What is cork? 

42S. From whence is opium derived? 

429. How are essences obtained? 

430. What are the gums most used in che- 
nistry? 

ANIMAL SUBSTANCES. 

431. What is albumen? 

432. What is gelatine? 

j . Enumerate the simple bodies of which 
inimal substances are compounded. 

434. What is the most common compound 
ngredient of animal substances? 



QUESTIONS FOR EX 

435. From what animal substances does 
phoi xhale, and in what state? 

r what circumstances is phos- 
in animal substances? 

437. What is the character of oils obtained 
from land animals? 

438. What is spermaceti? 

What is the character of fish oils.-' 
i hat is the thick part of blood com- 
posed of? 

441. What composes the scrum? 

442. Of what are the bones of animals com- 

443. What are the component ingredients 
of the curd and the whey of milk? 

FERMENTATION. 

444. What is fermenfttion? 

445. What is the process of vinous fermen- 

tation? 

446. When docs the acetous fermentation 

take place, and what 

. What is tioVi? 

Si \vh a t produced by the 

process of putrefaction? 



GLOSSARY 

OF TERMS USED IN CHEMISTRY, 



A. 

Icetic acid. The pure acid portion of vinegar. 
Icetates. Salts formed by the combination of any base 

with the acetic acid. 
Icids. Those bodies which produce the taste of sour- 

ness. In general they are liquids,- some of them, 

however, exist in a solid form. 

- oxygenized. Acids combined with an additional 
quantity of oxygen, for particular purposes. 

Icid, acetous. The base of vinegar, produced by a pe- 
culiar fermentation from vinous liquors. 

- arsenic. A compound of arsenic and oxygen. 

- benzoic. • A vegetable acid obtained from benzoin, 

- bombic. An animal acid obtained from silk worms, 

- boracic. A peculiar acid obtained from borax. 
camphoric. A vegetable acid obtained from cam- 
phor. 

- carbonic. A combination of carbon and oxygen. 

- chromic. A compound of chrome and oxygen. 

- citric. A vegetable acid obtained from lemons. 

- fluoric. A peculiar acid obtained from fluor spar. 

- gallic. A vegetable acid procured from galls. 

- lactic. An animal acid prepared from whey. 

- malic. A vegetable acid found in the juice of 
apples and several other fruits. 

molybdic. A compound of molybdena and oxy- 
gen. 

- mucous. A vegetable acid obtained from gum 
arabic. 

- muriatic. Obtained from sea salt: its base is un- 
known. 

- nitric. A compound of nitrogen and oxygen. 



180 GLOSSARY. 

".vy muriatic. Formed with muriatic acid and ony- 

oxaUc, A vegetable acid found in the juice of 

sorrel: it may also be obtained from vinegar and 

i eral other substances, by distillation with nitric 

acid. 

phosphoric. A compound of oxygen and phos- 
phorus. 

prussic. An animal acid, composed of hydrogen, 

nitrogen, and carbon. 

pyroligneous. An acetic acid obtained from hard 

woods. 

sebacic. An animal acid obtained from fat. 

succinic. A peculiar acid obtained from amber. 

sulphuric. A compound of sulphur and oxygen. 

tartarou^ A peculiar acid found in the cream of 

tartar of commerce. 

Aeriform fluids. < Fluid substances combined with an 
additional' portion of caloric, sufficient to give 
them the form of gas, or vapour. 

Affinity, chemical. A term used to express that pecu- 
liar propensity, which different species of matter 
have to unite with each other. 

pf aggregation. ' A force by which two bodies 

of the same kind tend to unite, and by which an 

regate is formed, without the chemical proper- 

:s of the substances being at all changed. 

of composition. A force by which subs' 

of different kinds unite, and by which a matt- 
formed whose properties are different from those 
of the bodies before their combination. This at- 
traction is stronger in proportion as the nature of 
the bodies is different, between which it is exert- 
ed. It is the same with chemical affinity. 

Agate. A precious stone of the lowest class, almost 
parent, and of a vitreous appearance. 

Aggregates. Substances whose parts are united by co- 
^ivc anxl not by chemical attraction. 



GLOSSARY 181 

r, Sulphate of lime. 

ilbumcn. That peculiar animal substance, which forms 
the serum of the blood, the white of eggs, and 
other compounds. 

ilchemy. The imaginary art of transmuting the baser 
metals to gold, also of furnishing an universal me- 
dicine and menstruum. 

llcokol. Rectified spirits of wine. 

ilembic. The term formerly given to the still used 
by chemists for distillation. 

Hkalies. Peculiar substances, which have a burning 
and caustic taste, and a strong tendency to com- 
bination. When united with acids, they form mild 
alkaline salts. 

illoys. A combination of any two metals, except mer- 
cury, is called an alloy. Thus gold is alloyed 
either with silver or copper, for the purposes of 
coinage. 

llluvial. By alluvial depositions, is meant the sol- 
which has been formed by the destruction of the 
mountains, and the washing down of their parti - 
cles, by torrents of water. 
mania. The volatile alkali. In a pure state it al- 
ways exists in an aeriform fluid of a pungent 
smell: with the muriatic acid it forms the sal am- 
moniac of commerce. 

bnalgam. A combination or mixture of mercury with 
any other metal. It is always soft, like butter. 

tmber. A beautiful bituminous substance of a yellow 
or brown colour, which takes a good polish, and 
after a slight rubbing becomes electric. It was 
called ehctrum by the ancients, and hence the 
word electricity. 

bnethyst. A gem of a violet colour and great bril- 
liancy, said to be as hard as the sapphire or ruby, 
from which it only differs in colour. 

Zmmoniacal salts. Salts formed w ith ammonia. 

Analysis. The resolution of a substance into its con- 
Q 





182 &vo$i 

nt parts, for the purpose of chemical exami- 
nation. 

ding. The art of rendering substances tough, 

turally hard and brittle, Glass and 

annealed by gradual cooling"; brass and 

copper by heating 1 , and then suddenly plunging 

n in cold water. 

Resisting putrefaction. 
alus, chemical. This term is descriptive of all 
the utensils made use of in a chemical laboratory. 
The principal are stills, furnaces, crucibles, re- 
torts, receivers, matrasses, worm tubs, pneumatic 
troughs, thermometers, &c 
Apparatus, pneumatic.. Such apparatus as are applied 

to operations on gaseous or aeriform fluids only. 
Areometer. A graduated glass instrument with a bulb, 
which the weight or gravity of liquids are as- 
certained. 
Argillaceous. A term descriptive of those earths which 

contain al limine or clay. 
Aroma. A term used for the odour which arises from 
certain vegetables, or their infusions. 

Salts formed by the combination of any 

substance, with the acid of arsenic. 

AsphaJtum. A bituminous substance found in a soft or 

liquid state on the surface of the Dead Sea, which 

- by age grows dry and hard. It is also found in 

the earth in several parts of the world. 

nfieres. This term is used to express the degree 
of additional pressure given to fluids. Thus, if in 
order to impregnate water with any of the gases, 
we give it a pressure of 15 lbs. upon every square 
inch of surface, we are said to give it one atmos- 
phere; if 30 lbs. two atmospheres, &c. 
Attraction. Chemical attraction is a term synonymous 

with affinity,- which sec. 
Azote. See Nitro 



GLOSSARY, 183 

B. 

BuUoon. A term given by the French to their spherical * 

chemical receivers. 
Balsams. Certain aromatic resinous substances, which 

are obtained from trees by incision. 
Barometer. An instrument which shows the variation 

of the pressure of the atmosphere, by the rise or 

fall of a cojjLimn of mercury in a graduated glass 

tube. 
Barytes. The most ponderous of the earths; whence 

its name. 
Base. A chemical term, usually applied to denote the 

earth, the alkali, or the metal which is combined 

with an acid to form a salt. 
Baths. Vessels for distillation, or digestion, contrived 

to transmit heat gradually and regularly. 
Bath-sand. Vessels tilled in part with dry sand, in 

which retorts are placed which require a greater 

heat than can be given by boiling water. 
Bath-water. Vessels of boiling water, in which other 

vessels, containing the matters to be distilled or 

digested, are placed. 
Benzoates. Salts formed by the combination of any 

base with the benzoic acid. 
Beril. A variety of the emerald. 
Bismuth. One of the metals, and the only one which 

has yet been had in a crystalline state.by art. 
Bittern. The liquor which remains after the crystalli- 
zation of muriate of soda (sea-salt). It generally 

contains sulphate of magnesia, and a small portion 

of sulphate of soda. 
Bitumen. A generic term, applied to a variety of fossil 

inflammable substances, such as coal, &c. 
ripe. An instrument to increase and direct the 

flame of a lamp for the analysis of minerals, and 

for other chemical purposes. 
ad. A round chemical vessel with a long neck, 
lally employed for digestions. It is also called 

a matrass. 



184 GLOSSARY. 

Borates. Salts formed by the combination dfj^my base 
with the acid of bor 

Button. A name given to. the small round piece of me- 
tal which is found at the bottom of a crucible, after 
a metallic ore, or an oxide of metal has been re- 
duced or melted. 

C 

Calamine. A native oxide of zinc. 

Calomel. The mild muriate of mercury. 

Calcareous. A chemical term formerly applied to de- 
scribe chalk, marble, and all other combinations of 
lime with carbonic acid. 

Calcination. The application of heat to saline, metallic 
or other substances; so regulated as to deprive 
them of moisture, &c. and yet preserve them in a 
pulverulent form. 

Caloric. The chemical term for the matter of heat. 

Calorimeter. An instrument for ascertaining the quan- 
tity of caloric disengaged from any substance that 
may be the object of experiment. 

Calx. An old term used to describe a metallic oxide. 

Camphor. A peculiar vegetable substance extracted 
from the roots, wood, and leaves of two species of 
laurus. It is brought from China, Sumatra, and 
Borneo. 

Campftorates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with the camphoric acid. 

Caoutchouc, (termed Indian Rubber.) A vegetable sub- 
stance obtained from the milky juice of different 
plants in hot countries. 

Capillary. A term usually applied to the rise of the 
sup in vegetables: or the rise of any fluid in very 
small tubes, by a peculiar kind of attraction, call- 
ed capillary attraction. 

Capsules. Small saucers of clay for roasting samples ofl 
i, to ascertain their value. 

Caput A term signifying! dead Intul, being 

that which remains in a retort after distillation tol 
dryness. Ste residuum, which is the modem term [ 



GLOSSARY, ] 85 

The basis of charcoal. 

Carbonates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with carbonic acid. 

Carburets. Compound substances, of which carbon 
forms one of the constituent parts. Thus plum- 
bago, which is composed of carbon and iron, is 
called carburet of iron. 

Causticity. That quality in certain substances, by which 
they burn or corrode animal bodies to which they 
are applied. 

Cementation. A process by which metals are purified 
or changed in their qualities by heat, without fu- 
sion, by means of a composition, called a cement, 
with which they are covered. *Thus iron by being 
kept a long time in a certain degree of heat, sur- 
rounded by charcoal powder, is converted into 
steel. 

The white oxide of lead. 

Chalybeate. A term employed to designate such mine- 
ral springs as owe their virtues to iron. The term 
refers to the early artizans who are stated to have 
been employed in the fabrication of this metal on 
the banks of the river Pontus, — the Clialybeans. 
{Chalybes nudi, see Virgil's Georgics.) 

id. Wood burnt in close vessels: it is an oxide of 
carbon, and generally contains a small portion of 
salts and earth. Its carbonaceous matter may be 
converted by combustion into carbonic acid gas. 

Chromates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with the chromic acid. 

Chrysolite. A precious stone, which becomes electric 
by being rubbed. The chrysolite of the ancients 
was the same gem which is now called topaz. 

Cinnabar. The red sulphur et of mercury. 

Citrates. Salts formed by the combination of any base 
with citric acid. 

Cjal. A term applied to the residuum of any dry dis- 
tillation of animal or vegetable matters. 
Q2 



J 80 GLOSSARY. 

»?. A force inherent in all the particles of all 
substances, excepting light and caloric, and which 
prevents bodies from falling- in piec< 
CoJiobation. When a distilled fluid is poured again upon 
the matter from which it was distilled, in order to 
make it stronger, it is called cohobation. 
Coke, or Coak. The residuum after the dispersion by- 
he at of the volatile products of pit-coal in close 
vessels. 

f\ohl. The negation of caloric. The temperatures of 
bodies, when diminished by artificial means, leave 
the impression of cold in proportion to the rapidi- 
tv with which they abstract heat from the sentient 
living body iifeheir neighbourhood. The absolute 
annihilation of the matter of heat would convert 
all aeriform and liquid matter to an inert, lifeless 
and frigid mass, — chaos would come again. Calo- 
ric, the cause of warmth, is the great animator, 
and very soul of matter. 
Coloration, of vegetables, is one of the most slttractive 
phenomena of vegetation; itjs a process analogous 
to oxidation. 

i, al ion. A term expressive of a true chemical union 
of two or more substances, in opposition to mere 
mechanical mixture. 
Combustibles. Certain substances which are capable of 
combining more or less rapidly with oxygen. 
They are divided by chemists into simple and 
compound. 
ustion. The act of absorption of oxygen, by com- 
bustible bodies, from atmospheric or vital air. 
■nation. The reduction of hard bodies into small 
s, by pounding, &c. Thus the hea- 

Ic to float in the lightesl 
Am 
Qom 

iry, or quatern: 
formed of two, three, or fou 
elements. 



GLOSSARY. 187 

i ration. The act of increasing the specific gra- 
vity of bodies. The term is usually applied to 
fluids which are rendered stronger by evaporating 
a portion of the water which they contain. 

Concretion. The art of converting liquids, or airs, or 
both, to a state of palpable solidity. 

Condensation. The act of bringing the component parts 
of vapour, or gas, nearer together by pressure, or 
by colds. Thus atmospheric air may be condensed 
by pressure, and aqueous vapour by the substrac- 
tion of caloric, till it is converted into water. 
ra$. A sulphate of iron. 
ornelian. A variety of silex, with the oxide of iron. 

Crucibles, Vessels of indispensable use in the various 
operations of fusion by heat. They are made of 
baked earth, or metal, in the form of an inverted 
cone. 

Crystallization. An operation of nature, in which va- 
rious earths, salts, and metallic substances pass 
from a fluid to a solid state, assuming certain de- 
terminate geometrical figures, 

Crystallization, water of. That portion which is com- 
bined with salts, in the act of crystallizing, and 
becomes a component part of them. 

A vessel made of burnt bones mixed with a 
small proportion of clay and water. It is used 
whenever gold and silver are refined, by melting 
them with lead. The process is called cup ellation. 

'upellation. All gold and silver wares are tried by this 
process, and marked in consequence in a peculiar 
way, to guard the public against frauds. Hence 
the term cupel tests. 

D 

lecombustion. Synonymus with deoxidation. 

tsition. The separation of the constituent prin- 
ciples of compound bodies by chemical means. 
rtpitation. The sudden decomposition of salts, at- 
tended with a crackling noise when thrown into a 
red-hot crucible, or on an open fire. 



188 «' 

Deflagration. The vivid combustion 

.whenever nitre, mixed with an inflammable sub- 
stance, is exposed to a red heat. This may be at- 
tributed to the extrication of oxygen from the ni- 
tre, and its being transferred to the inflammable 
body; as any of the nitrates or oxygenized muri- 
ates will produce the same effect. 
Deliquesce. The tendency which some bodies have to 
become liquid by absorbing moisture from the at- 
mosphere or elsewhere. Liquids of some kinds 
have also this property. Pure potash in a concrete 
state even deliquesces*, and the sulphuric acid docs 
the same: it is remarkable that their combination 
produces a salt, the sulphate* of potash, which has 
no such property. 
Deliquium. The state of potash, or any debqu 

salt, when it has so far deliquesced by exposure to 

the air, as to have become a liquid. 

Deoxidate, or deoxidize. To deprive a body of oxygen, 

Deoxidation. A term made use of by some writers tn 

to express that operation by which one substance 

deprives another of its oxygen. 

Dephl To deprive any substance entirely of iti 

It is a process the reverse of del 
Depuration. The purging or separating any liquid il 

a state of purity from its faeces or le 
Desicate. To deprive of moisture any substance, whe 
ther liquid or concrete. Explosion is conseqUen 
to the instantaneous conversion of solids into 
or of gases into liquids or solids. Gunpowder elu 
cidatcsthe first process on being decomposed n 
close vessels; and the effect of kindling oxygei 
hydrogen gases, the latter process. 

An explosion with noise. It is most com 
monly applied to the explosion of nitre whci 
thrown upon heated charcoal. 
Uiam bon in a state of high purity, hi 

inimitable by art, though we are probably on th« 



GLOSSARY. 189 

« 

verge of accomplishing this lovely operation of na- 
ture. 

ligester. An instrument by means whereof the boiling 
point of water may be elevated far beyond 212°, 
when it becomes a solvent of many substances, 
which could not by ordinary decoction be liquified. 

ligestion. The effect produced by the continued 
soaking of a solid substance in a liquid, with the 
application of heat. 

ligestor, Papin's. An apparatus for reducing animal or 
vegetable substances to a pulp or jelly expeditiously. 

listiUation. A process for separating the volatile parts 
of a substance from the more fixed, and preserving 
them both in a state of separation. 

locimacy. The art of assaying the ores of metals. 

luctility. A quality of certain bodies, in consequence 
of which they may be drawn out into wire without 
fracture. 

lulcification. The combination of mineral acids with 
alcohol. Thus we have dulcified spirit of vitriol, &c. 

lycing. The art of transferring the -colouring matter 
of one body to another, so that it shall be durably 
fixed. It depends on the exertion of particular 
affinities between the colouring matters and the 
substances to which they are applied, which is ac- 
complished however in most instances by the 
means of mordants onlv. 
E 
bullition, is always attended by the conversion of a li- 
quid into an elastic fluid, as w ate* :•; The 
temperatures at which liquids boil is influenced by 
atmospheric pressure, therefore the boiling point 
of fluids varies as the weight oi^ the incumbent at- 
mosphere. See Digester. 

-ation. Expressive of the purification of a sub- 
stance by washing with water. 

Jjkftcryescente. An intestine motion which takes place 
Tfcn certain bodies, occasioned by the sudden es- 
cape of a gaseous substance. 



1 C J0 GLOSSARY 

EJJlort v term commonly applied to tliOJ 

line crystals, which become pulverulent 
sure to the air, in consequence of the loss of a 
part of the water of crystallization. 

Efflux. The spontaneous oozing" of the juices of ve- 
tables by incision or otherwise. 

Elasticity. A force in bodies by which they endeavour 
to restore themselves to the posture from whence 
they were displaced by any external force. 

Elastic fluids. A name sometimes given 

and gases. Vapour is called an elastic fluid; gas, a 
permanently elastic fluid. 

name applied to chemical attraction, where- 
by various bodies having an affinity to any particu- 
lar substance, and being presented to it in a mixed 
state, it unites with one and rejects all the rest. 
The term is less used than formerly, as it would ap- 
pear to imply volition on the^art of inanimate mat- 
ter. 

Elective attractions. A term used by Bergman and 
others, to designate what we now express by the 
words chemical affinity. 

Electricity. A property in bodies whereby when rub- 

1, they draw substances, emit flame, and may 

be filled with such a quantity of th fluid 

as if discharged at once upon a human body would 

endanger life. Johnson. 

Elements. The simple, constituent parts of !. 
which are incapable of decomp f 

qiientlji called principL 

ices." 
\atum. An opera 

id from another 

degree of heal that will m 

v, and not thi othej 

i 
he lighter purls which are caJJ53bl- 

i red ofF. 



GLOSSARY. 191 

Emerald. A transparent precious stone of a green co- 
lour, nearly of the same hardness as the garnet or 
agnate, but inferior to the topaz and ruby. 

Emery. An ore of iron. 

Empyreuma. A peculiar and indescribably disagreea- 
ble smell, arising from the burning of animal and 
vegetable matter in close vessels. 

Enamels. Their tints are owing* to the fixation of oxy- 
gen in the metallic oxides employed in the process, 

Epsom Salt. Sulphate of magnesia. 

Eolipile. A copper vessel with a* small orifice, and 
partly filled with water. It is made hot, that the 
vapour of the water may rush out with violence, 
and carry a stream of air with it to increase the in- 
tensity of fire. 

Essences. What are called essences, in. chemistry and # 
pharmacy, are the essential oils obtained by distil- 
lation from odoriferous vegetable substances. 
sential salts. The saline substances found in plants, 
and which are held in solution by the water where- 
in they are infused. They are obtained by evapo- 
ration and cooling. 

Others. Volatile liquids formed by the distillation of 
some of the acids with alcohol. 

Itching. The art of corroding copper, Jead, or glass, 
by suitable chemical agents. 

Etiolation. The blanching of vegetables by preventing 
the access of light. 

udiometer. An instrument invented by Dr. Priestly, 
for determining the purity of any given portion of 
atmospheric air. The science of investigating the 
different kinds of gases is called eudiometry. 

Evaporation. The conversion of fluids into vapour by 
heat. 

Expression. A term used in pharmacy, denoting the 
act of forcing out the juices and oils of plants by 
means of a press. By a similar term, the exp, 
arc distinguished from the essential oils. 



192 GLOSSARY. 

Ehicatum. The act of drying moist bodies. It is ef- 

oling the aqueous particles 

by the application of heat or atmospheric air, or 

by absorbing the moisture with soft and spongy 

, ^stances. « 

Extracts. The soluble parts of vegetable substances, 

first dissolved in spirit or water, and then reduced 

to the consistence of a thick syrup, or paste, by 

evaporation. 

Farina, or flour. A species of fecula. 

Fat. An oily concrete animal substance, composed oi 
sebacic acid, and carbon. # . 

Fecula, vegetable, differs from mucilage only in i being 
insoluble in cold water, in which liquid it falls very 
speedily; by caloric or in hot water, it assumes ah 
the properties of mucilage. Paper is a faecula. 
Indigo has been termed a colouring fecula. 

Fermentation. A peculiar spontaneous motion, which 
takes place in all vegetable matter when exposec 
for a certain time to a proper degree of temperu 

FibrinAs that white fibrous substance left after elutria 
Hon of the coagulum of blood, and which also com 
poses the* principal part of the animal fibre. I 
shrivels like parchment on exposure to heat. 1 
has been thought to be the seat of irritability, am 
the medium by which the energies of life are di 
rected to the several organs. 

Filtration. A chemical process for the purifying ot L 
quid substances. Blotting paper supported by 
funnel, is commonly made use of; but for expen 
give liquors, chemists generally use a little carde* 
cotton, lightly pressed into the tube of a glass tui 

/Vre. That appearance produced from the combine 
effects of light and heat, at the same time diser 
gaged in the act of combustion. 



GLOSSARY 193 

Fixity . A term applicable to the property of some bo- 
dies of bearing* a great heat without being volati- 
lized. 

lowers, in chemical language, are solid dry substances 
reduced to a powder by sublimation. Thus we 
have flowers of arsenic, of sal ammoniac, of sul- 
phur, &c. which are these substances unaltered, 
except in appearance. 

tfuates. Salts formed by the combination of any base, 
with fluoric acid. 

fluidity. A term applied to all liquid substances. 
Solids are converted to fluids by combining" with a 
certain portion of caloric. 

lux. A substance which is mixed with metallic ores, 
or other bodies, to promote their fusion; as an al- 
kali is mixed with silex, in order to form glass. 

<hssil. See Mineral, with which it is synonymous. 

rcezing. The point at which water assumes a crystal- 
line form. 

'uligincus. A term sometimes made use of in describ- 
ing certain vapours which arise in chemical opera- 
tions, having the thick appearance of smoke. 

utlmi nation. Thundering, or explosion with noise. 
We have fulminating silver, fulminating gold, and 
other fulminating powders, which explode with a 
loud report by friction, or when slightly heated. 

furnaces. Vessels of various forms for the fusion of 
ores, or other operations which require heat. 

, blast. Are built for making iron, smelting 



ores, &c. They are so contrived that their heat 
is much increased by means of powerful bellows. 
A blacksmith's forge is a kind of blast furnace. 
-, wind. Chemical furnaces for intense heat, 



so constructed, that they draw with great force, 
without the use of bellows. 
?usion. The state of a body which was solid in the 
temperature of the atmosphere, and is now ren- 
fluid bv the artificial application of heat. 



194 GLOSSARY. 

G 

Galena \ or the black ore of lead. This which is the 
most common of all lead ores, is frequently distin- 
guished by the name of potter's lead ore. 
" An ore of zinc, known in the English mine 
countries, by the name of black, jack, or mock 
lead. 

Galldtes. Salts formed by the combination of any base 
with gallic acid. 

Galvanism. Supposed to be essentially the same prin- 
ciple as electricity. 

Garnet. A stone which when transparent and of a fine 
colour is reckoned among 1 gems. 

Gas. All solid substances when converted into perma- 
nently elastic fluids by caloric, are called gases. 

Gases are then of necessity compounds, formed by the 
union of a base with a sufficient portion of the 
matter of heat. 

Gaseous. Having the nature and properties of gas. 

Gazometer. A name given to a variety of utensils and 
apparatus, contrived to measure, collect, preserve, 
or mix the different gases. 

Gelatine. A chemical term for animal jelly or glue. 
It exists particularly in the tendons and the skin 
of animals. 

Glass. Some metallic oxides, when fused, are called 
glass. They have somewhat of resemblance to 
common glass. 

Glass, phosphoric. A vitreous, insipid, insoluble sub- 
stance, procured by boiling down phosphoric acid 
to a syrup, and then melting it by an increased heat 

Glucine. A peculiar earth which has been found in 
emerald and beryl. 

Gluten. A vegetable substance somewhat similar tc 
animal gelatine or glue. It is the gluten in wheat 
flour which gives it the property of making gDoc 1 
bread, and adhesive paste. 

alktt weight made use of by enemies. 



GLOSSARY. 195 

writers. Twenty grains make a scruple; 3 scru- 
ples a drachm; 8 drachms, or 480 grains, make an 
ounce; 12 ounces, or 5760 gTains, a pound troy. 
The avoirdupois pound contains 7000 gTains. 

Granite. A compound rock consisting of quartz, felt- 
spar and mica. 

Granulation. The operation of pouring a melted metal 
into water, in order to divide it into small parti- 
cles, for chemical purposes. Tin is thus granu- 
lated by the dyers before it is dissolved in the pro- 
per acid; and lead also in the proper way in order 
to make small shot. 
rarity. That property by which bodies move towards 
each other, in proportion to their respective quan- 
tities of matter. This is the property by which 
bodies fall to the earth. 

Gravity, specific. This differs from absolute gravity in 
as much as it is the weight of a given measure of 
any solid or fluid body, compared with the same 
measure of distilled water. 

'xum. Mucilaginous exudations from certain trees. 
Gum consists of lime, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, 
and nitrogen, with a little phosphoric acid. 
H. 

Heat. See Caloric. 

Hepar, or Liver. The name formerly given to the com- 
bination of sulphur with alkali. It is now called 
sulphuret of potash, &.c. instead of liver of sulphur. 

Hepatic Gas. The old name for sulphuretted hydrogen 
gas. 

Hermetically. A term applied to the closing of the 
orifice, of a tube, or vessel, so as to render it air- 
tight. — It is usually done by melting the end of 
the tube by means of a blow-pipe. 

Horn-silver. Luna cornua, the muriate of silver. 

Hyacinth. A precious stone of an orange red, nearly 
as hard as rock crystal. 

Hydrogen. A simple substance; one of the constituent 
parts of water. 



19b GLOSSARY. 



gas. Solid hydrogen* united with a. large pqr- 
tion of caloric. It is the lightest of all the known 
gases. It was formerly called inflammable air. 

Hydrometers* Instruments for ascertaining the specific 
gravity of spirituous liquors, or other fluids. 

Hygrometers. Instruments for ascertaining the degree 
of moisture in atmospheric air. 

Hyperoxygenized. A term applied to substances which 
are combined with the largest possible quantity of 
oxygen. We have muriatic acid, oxygenized mu- 
riatic acid, and hyperoxygenizedlnuriatic acid. 
I. 

Ice* The crystalline form of water. 

Incandescence, imports a white heat. 

Incineration. The burning of vegetables for the sake 
of their ashes. It is usually applied to the burn- 
ing of kelp, for making alkali or soda. 

Inflammation. A phenomenon which takes place on 
mixing certain substances. The mixture of oil of 
turpentine with strong nitrous acid, is an instance 
of this peculiar chemical effect. 

Infusion. A simple operation to procure the salts, 
juices, and other virtues of vegetables, by means 
of water. 

Ink, sympathetic, (green,) the muriate of cobalt. 

Integrant particles. The most minute particles into 
which any substance can be divided, similar to 
each other, and to the substance of which they 
are parts, are termed its integrant particles. 

Intermediates. A term made use of when speaking of 
chemical affinity. Oil, for example, has no affinity 
to water, unless it be previously combined with an 
alkali; it then becomes soap, and the alkali is said 
to be the intermedium which occasions the union. 
K. 

Kali. A genus of marine plants, which is burnt to 
procure mineral alkali by afterwards lixiviating 
the ashes. 



GLOSSARY. 197 

L. 

Laboratory. A room fitted up with apparatus for the 
performance of chemical operations. 

Lac. A resin, and not, as improperly termed, a gum. 

Lactates. Salts formed by the combination of any base 
with lactic acid. 

Lakes. Certain colours made by combining the colour- 
ing* matter of cochineal, or of certain vegetables, 
with pure alumine, or with oxide of tin, zinc, &x. 

Lamp> Argand's. A kind of lamp much used for che- 
mical experiments. It is made on the principles 
of a wind furnace, and thus produces a great de- 
gree of light and heat, without smoke. 

Lens. A glass, convex on both sides, for concentrating* 
the rays of the sun. It is employed by chemists in 
fusing refractory substances which cannot be ope- 
rated upon by an ordinary degree of heat. 

Levigation. The grinding- down of hard substances to 
an impalpable powder, on a stone with a muller, 
or in a mill adapted to the purpose. 

Liquefaction. The change of a solid to the state of a 
fluid, occasioned by the combination of caloric. 

Litharge. An oxide of lead which appears in a state of 
vitrification. It is formed in the process of sepa- 
rating silver from lead. 

Lixiviation. The solution of an alkali or a salt in wa- 
ter, or some other fluid, in order to form a lixi- 
vium. 

Lixivium. A fluid impregnated with an alkali or with 
a salt. 

Lute. A composition for closing the junctures of che- 
mical vessels to prevent the escape of gas or va- 
pour in distillation. 

M. 

Maceration. The steeping of a solid body in a fluid in 
order to soften it, without impregnating the fluid. 

Magistery. The precipitated or sublimed oxides of 
certain metals were so termed by the alchemists. 
R2 



VjS glossary- 

As for example, pearl while is the magistery of bis- 
muth. 

Mahttes. Salts formed by the combination of any base 
with the malic acid. 

Malleability. That property of metals which gives them 
the capacity of being extended and flattened by 
hammering-. Or, the flexible or elastic nature in- 
duced in various metals, by annealing. It is con- 
tradistinguished with brittleness. 

Manna. A sort of sugar. 

Marble. Carbonate of lime. 

Marcasite. Native sulphuret of iron, or pyrites. 

Marl. Compounds of carbonate of lime and sand, or 
clay, or both. It differs from lime-stone by be- 
coming diffused when blended with water equally 
as clay would: hence it is a carbonate of lime, in 
such a state, as to yield an impalpable powder, 
without exposure to the furnace or lime-kiln. 

Manganese. Probably a corruption of magnes, the load- 
stone, because of its property of destroying or neu- 
tralizing the colouring matter of glass. The black 
oxide of this metal is the magnet, {manganese) of 
the glass-makers. It is true, that in a minute por- 
tion added to alkali in solution, it becomes chang- 
ed to blue, or, if iron be present, to green: with 
much water it becomes violet and red, and after- 
wards the coloured particles will precipitate, and 
change to black. Hence the mineral chamoeleon, 
so termed. 

Massicot. A name given to the yellow oxide of lead, as 
minium is applied to the red oxide. 
'ass. Another name for a bolt-head; which see. 
Matrix. The bed in which a metallic ore is found. 
Menstruum. The fluid in which a solid body is dis- 
solved. Thus water is a menstruum for salts, gums, 
Sec. and spirit of wine for resin*. 
>T>p}iitis. Nitrogen or azotic gas. 
I Tetaltic oxides. Metals combined with oxygen. By this 



GLOSSARY. 199 

process they are generally reduced to a pulveru- 
lent form; are changed from combustible to incom- 
bustible substances, and receive the property of 
being 1 soluble in acids. 

— irritation. The energy of galvanism upon the 
nervous fibre. 

— sulphur ets, are abundant in nature; they imply 
compounds of sulphur and metallic bases only. 

■ alloys. Compounds of metals. The chemical 



union of two or more metals is so called. All the 
amalgams are referrible to this head. Bell metal, 
brass, bronze, gun-metal, latten, pinchbeck, prin- 
ces'-metal, similor, and tombac, are of this kind. 

Mica. A stone which in its purest state is colourless, 
but either from a less intimate combination, or from 
mixture of foreign substances, is found of different 
colours; the white and yellow of which have a 
metallic appearance, but not greasy to the touch, 
winch distinguishes it from talc. 

Mineral. Any natural substance of a metallic, earthy, 
or saline nature, whether simple or compound, is 
deemed a mineral. 

Mineralizers. Substances which are combined with 
metals in their ores are sometimes termed mine- 
ralizers; as sulphur, arsenic, carbonic acid, &c. 

Mineralogy. The science of fossils, and minerals. 

Mineral waters. Waters which hold some metal, earth, 
or salt in solution. They are frequently termed 
medicinal waters. 

Minium. The red oxide of lead. 

Molecule. The molecules of bodies are those ultimate 
particles of matter which cannot be decomposed 
by any chemical means. 

Molybdates. Combinations of the molybdic acid and 
different bases. The Carynthian molybdate of lead 
is a specimen of native yellow lead ore. 

Mordants. Substances which have a chemical affinity 
for particular colours; they are employed by the 



MO GLOSSARY. 

dyers as a bond to unite the colour with the cloth 
intended to be dyed. 

Mother water*, or Mothers. The liquors which are left 
after the crystallization of any salts. 

^e. A glutinous matter obtained from vegeta- 
bles, transparent and tasteless, soluble in water, 
but not in spirit of wine. It chiefly consists of 
carbon and hydrogen, with a little oxygen. 

Muffle. A semi-cylindrical utensil, resembling the tilt 
of a boat, made of baked clay; its use is that of a 
cover to cupels in the assay furnace, to prevent the 
charcoal from falling upon the metal, or whatever 
is the subject of experiment. 

Muriates. Salts formed by the combination of any base 
with muriatic acid. 

N. 

Natron. One of the names for mineral alkali, or soda. 

Nectar. The aromatic and saccharine juices of plants, 
from which honey is formed. 

Neutralize. When two or more substances mutually 
disguise each others properties by being in equal 
proportions, or by saturating each other, they are 
said to be neutralized. 

Neutral salt. A substance formed by the union of an 
acid with an alkali, an earth, or a metallic oxide, 
in such proportions as to saturate both the base 
and the acid. 

Nitrates. Salts formed by the combination of any base 
with nitric acid. 

Nitrogen. A simple substance, by the French chemists 
called azote. It enters into a variety of compounds 
and fortns more than three parts in four of atmos- 
pheric 

Nomenclature, The language of chemical science. — 
The names of compounds are calculated to shew 
thefcind and nature of the bodies which compose 
them. It admits of nothing arbitrary, and is ca 
pable of 'adaptation to future discoveries. The 



GLOSSARY. 201 

history of salts in general marks its many advan- 
tages over the arbitrary language of the old che- 
mists. 

O. 

Ickres. Various combinations of the earths with oxide, 
or carbonate of iron. 

Til A fluid substanee well known. It is composed 
of hydrogen, oxygen, and carbon. 

Ipal. A precious stone, which is the most beautiful 
of all the flint kind, owing to the changeable ap- 
pearance of its colours by reflection and refraction. 

TreSu. Metallic earths, which frequently contain seve- 
ral extraneous matters, such as sulphur, arsenic, 
&c. 

)rganic compounds, are distinguished from factitious 
chemical products, by having had or possessing 
vitality. 

}rpiment. The yellow sulphuret of arsenic. 

hudaies. Salts formed by the combination of any base 
with oxalic acid. 

Ixide. Any substance combined with oxygen, in a 
proportion not sufficient to produce acidity. 

~)xidize. To combine oxvgen without producing aci~ 
dity. 

Ixidiztment. The operation by which any substance 
is combined with oxygen, in a degree not suffi- 
cient to produce acidity. 

Oxygen. A simple substance, composing the greatest 
part of water, and pail of atmospheric air. 
— gas. Oxygen converted to a gaseous state by 
caloric. It is also called vital air. It forms nearly 
one fourth of atmospheric air. 

Oxygenize. To acidify a substance by oxygen. Syno- 
nvmous with Oxvgenate. 
P. 

Paper. Its chemical analysis affords the same products 
as faccula. 
les, are either constituent or integrant. The for- 



202 GLOSSARY. 

mer arc not farther decomposable by chemical 
means; the latter are the infinitely small mole- 
cules, into which compounds are mechanically di- 
visible; but integrant particles themselves, consist 
of constituent particles, into which it is presumed 
they are separable by decomposition. 

Parting. The operation of separating gold from silver, 
by means of nitrous acid, and other mediums. 

Pellicle. A thin skin which forms on the surface of sa- 
line solutions and other liquors, when boiled do wn 
to a certain strength. 

Percussion. The act of striking* a body. 

Petrifaction. When a mineral water holding earthy 
matter in solution, is dissipated, or loses the power 
by which such mineral matter is suspended, the 
earth is gradually deposited, and if it falls upon 
vegetable matter, encrusts and envelops them, so 
as in due time to have the appearance of stone. 

Petroleum. Liquid bitumen. 

Phlogiston. An old chemical name for an imaginary 
substance, supposed to be a combination of fire 
with some other matter, and a constituent part of 
all inflammable bodies, and of many other sub 
stances. 

Phosphates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with phosphoric acid. 

Phosphites. Salts formed by the combination of an) 
base with phosphorous acid. 

Phosphorus. A concrete combustible body. It has it- 
name from its spontaneous combustion with light, 
at the lowest known temperature, when exposed 
to the air of the atmosphere. 

Phosphori of Baldwin, has the property of emitting 
light in the dark, after being heated. It is the ni 
trute of lime. 

Phosphorus, Bolognian, has the same qualities. It is the 
sulphate of barytes. 

Phosphurets. Substances formed by a union with phos 



GLOSSARY. 203 

phorus. Thus we have phosphuret of lime, phos- 
phuretted hydrogen, &c. 

Plumbago. Carburet of iron, or the black-lead of com- 
merce. 

Pneu?natic. Any thing" relating to the airs and gases. 
trough. A vessel filled in part with water 



or mercury, for the purpose of collecting gases, 
so that they may be readily removed from one ves- 
sel to another. 

y recipitate. Any matter which, having been dissolved 
in a fluid, falls to the bottom of the vessel. 

Precipitation. That chemical process by which bodies 
dissolved, mixed, or suspended in a fluid, are se- 
parated from that fluid, and made to gravitate to 
the bottom of the vessel. 

'rijiciples of bodies. Synonymous with Elements; which 
see. 

Prussiates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
base with prussic acid. 

Pulverization. The reducing of any body to powder, 
or overcoming mechanically the attraction of cohe- 
sion to a considerable extent. 

Purification. The separation of all foreign matter from 
any substance or preparation, whether simple or 
compound. 

Putrefaction. The last fermentative process of nature, 
by which bodies are decomposed so as to separate 
their principles, for the purpose of re -uniting them 
by future attractions, in the production of new com- 
positions. 

pyrites. An abundant mineral found on the English 
coasts and elsewhere. Some are sulphurets of iron, 
and other sulphurets of copper, with a portion of 
alumine and silex. 
Pyrites, martial. That species of Pyrites which con- 
tains iron for its basis. 
Pyrometer. An instrument invented by Mr. Wedge- 
wood for ascertaining the degrees of heat in fur- 
naces and intense fires , 



201 GLOSSARY. 

Pyrophori. Substances which readily tuke fire, even 
spontaneously on exposure to a dampish atmos- 
phere, but not to perfectly dry air. 

Quartalion. A term used by refiners in a certain ope- 
ration of parting 1 . 

Quartz. A name given to a variety of siliceous earths, 

mixed with a small portion of lime, oralumine. 

R. 

Radicals. A chemical term for the elements of bodies; 
which see. 

Radicals, compound. When the base of an acid is com- 
posed of two or more substances, it is said that the 
acid is formed of a compound radical. 

Re-agents. Substances which are added to mineral 
waters, or other liquids, as tests to discover then 
nature and composition. 

Realgar. Red sulphuretted oxide of arsenic. 

Receivers. Globular glass vessels adapted to retorts for 
the purpose of preserving and condensing the vo- 
latile matter raised in distillation. 

Rectification. Is the re-distilling a liquid to render it 
more pure, or more concentrated, by abstracting 
only a part. 

Reduction. The restoration of metallic oxides to their 
original state of metals, which is usually effected 
by means of charcoal and fluxes. 

Refining. The process of separating the perfect me- 
tals from other metallic substances, by what is call- 
ed cupellation. 

Refractory. A term applied to earths or metals, thax 
are either infusible, or that require an extraordinary 
dci^rce of heat to change or melt them. 

Refrigeration. A method of crystallizing salts. 

Refrigeratory. A contrivance of any kind, which by 
containing cold water, answers the purpose of con- 
densing the vapour or gas that arises in distillation 
A worm tub is the refrigeratory. 



GLOSSARY. 203 

Registers. Openings in chimneys, or other parts of 

" chemical furnaces, with sliding doors, to regulate 

the quantity of atmospheric air admitted to the 

fire-place. 

ReguJus. Signifies a pure metallic substance, freed 

*" from all extraneous matters. 

'on. A principle whereby the particles of bo- 
dies are prevented from coming into actual contact. 
Residuum. What is left in a pot or retort after the 
more valuable part has been drawn off. Thus the 
sulphate of potash which remains in the pot after 
the distillation of nitrous acid, is called the resi- 
duum . It is sometimes called the caput mortuum . 
Vegetable juices concreted by evaporation 
either spontaneously or- by fire. Their character- 
istic is solubility in alcohol, and not in water. — 
They owe their solidity chiefly to their union with 
, s -en. 
Retort. A vessel in the shape of a pear, with its neck 
bent downwards, used in distillation; the extre 
mity of which neck fits into that of another be 
called a receiver. 

icitory. An oven or furnace in which the flame 

rnfined by a dome which occasions it to be beat 

down upon the floor of the furnace before it 

»es into the chimney. 

R+iviji cation. See Reduction, which is a synonymous 

term: though "revivification" is generally used 

when speaking of quicksilver. 

A preparative operation in metallurgy to ' 
dissipate the sulphur, arsenic, &c. with which a 
metal may be combined. 

I Crystallized silex. 
As of iron, is the oxide of this metal. The or- 
dinary rust of iron, is the sub -carbonated oxide of 
metal. Rust is, however, a general term for 
t is properly known by ths name of metallic 



206 GLOSSARY. 

Ruby. A precious stone of which there are several 
varieties. Of these the sapphire is the hardest and 
held in the highest estimation. The red sapphire 
when perfect is more valuable than a diamond of 
the same size. 

S. 

Sacharum Saturni. The old name for the acetate of 
lead. 

Salifiable bases. All the metals, alkalies, and earths, 
which are capable of combining with acids, and 
forming salts, are called salifiable bases. 

Saline, Partaking of the properties of a salt. 

Salts, neutral. A class of substances formed by the 
combination or saturation of an acid with an alka- 
li, an earth, or other salifiable base . 

Saks, triple. Salts formed by the combination of an 
acid with two bases or radicals. The tartrate of 
soda and potash (Rochelle salt) is an instance of 
this kind of combination. 

Smdl &.\ ateSaA - 

Sandiver. A matter, composed of different salts 
which rises as a pellicle on the surface of the pots 
in which glass is melted . It is used as a flux in 
the fusion of ores, and for other purposes. 

Sap-colours. A name given to various expressed vege 
table juices of a viscid nature, which are ins^s 
sated by slow evaporation for the use of painters. 
Sec; sap-green, gamboge, &c. are of this class. 

Sapphire. A species of ruby. 

Saponaceous. A term applied to any substance whicl 
is of the nature or appearance of*soap. 

Saturation . The act of impregnating a fluid with ano 
ther substance, till no more can be received or im 
bibed. A fluid which holds as much of any sub 
stance as it can dissolve, is said to be saturatec 
with that substance. A solid body may in tin 
same way be saturated with a fluid. 



GLOSSARY. 207 

\Selenite. A salt existing in spring water, formed by 
sulphuric acid and lime. Its proper chemical 
name is sulphate of lime. 

Semi-metal. A name formerly given to those metals 
which are neither malleable, ductile, nor fixed, if 
exposed to the fire. 

Siliceous earths. A term used to describe a variety of 
natural substances, which are composed chiefly of 
silex; as quartz, flint, sand, &c. 

Simple Substances . Synonymous with Elements; which 
see. 

Smelting. The operation of fusing ores for the pur- 
pose of separating the metals they contain, from 
the sulphur and arsenic with which they are mix- 
ed, and also from other heterogeneous matter. 

Solubility. A characteristic of most salts. See Solu- 
tion. 

Solution. The perfect union of a solid substance with 
a fluid . Salts dissolved in water are proper ex- 
amples of solution. 

Spars. A name formerly given to various crystallized 
stones; such as the fluor, or Derbyshire spar, the 
adamantine spar, &c. 

Specific gravity. See Gravity. 

Spelter. The commercial name of zinc. 

Spirit. A term used by the early chemists to denote 
all volatile fluids, collected by distillation. 

Spirit proof. A term made use of to describe such ar- 
dent spirits as are of the same strength as good 
brandy. 

Stalactites. Certain concretions of calcareous earth 
found suspended like icicles in caverns. They are 
formed by the oozing of water through the crevi- 
ces, charged with this kind of earth. 

Steatites. A kind of stone composed of silex, iron, and 
magnesia. Also called French chalk, Spanish 
chalk, and soap-rock. 

Sublimation. A process whereby certain volatile sub- 
stances are raised by heat, and again condensed 



------ 



GLOSSARY. 

by cold into a solid form. Flowers of sulphm 
made in this way. The soot of our common I 
is a familiar instance of this proc 

Sublimate. A name given to several mercurial prepa- 
rations. 

Subsalts. Salts with less acid than is sufficient to neu- 
tralize their' radicals. 

A well known substance, found in a van 
vegetables, composed of oxygen, hydrogen, 
carbon. 

Sulphates. Salts formed by the combination of any base 
with the sulphuric acid. 

Sulphites. Salts foYmed by the combination of any 
base with sulphurous acid. 

Sulphurets. Combinations of alkalies, or metals, with 
sulphur. 

Sulphuretted. A substance is said to be sulphn; 
when it is combined with sulphui*. ^rhus wc 
sulphuretted hydrogen, &c. 

Super-salts. Salts with an excess of acid. 

Synthesis. When a body is examined by dividi 
into its component parts, it is called an;» 
when we-attempt to prove the nature of a substance 
by the union of its principles, the operation i? 
called synthesis. 

Syphon. A bent tube used by chemists for draw 
quids" from one vessel into another, it is si 
called a Crane. 

T. 

7\irt rates. Salts formed by the combination of any 
tfa the acid of tartar. 
A stone of a white gray, yellowish, or greenish 
oapj to t!. 

t pi 
I !<• than nn 

Tan> ilc principle found in 

quantity med 

nunc Iron, its use in the tannin-' 



GLOSSARY. 209 



I Hacked to anybody, occasions the degree of 

I temperature of that body. 

I Tenacity. This is a term used when speaking of gluti- 
nous bodies. It is also expressive of the adhesion 
of one substance to another. 

Test. That part of a cupel which is impregnated with 
litharge in the operation of refining lead. The 
name of whatever is employed in chemical experi- 
ments to detect the several ingredients of any com- 
position. 

Test-papers. Papers impregnated with certain chemi- 
cal re-agents ; such as litmus, turmeric, radish, &c. 
They are used to dip into fluids to ascertain by a 
change of colours the presence of acids and alka- 
lies. 

Thermometer. An instrument to shew the relative heat 
of bodies. Fahrenheit's thermometer is that used 
in England. 

Pineal. The commercial name of rude borax. 

Topaz. A species of precious stone, among the varic- 
ties of which some are rendered electric by heat, 
others by mere friction. 

Tincture. Solutions of substances in spirituous men- 
strua, or solvents. 

r ibrrefaction. An operation similar to wafting; which 
see. 

'ihurmalin. A precious stone, more or less transpa- 
* rent, and generally of a shining black: like topaz 
it is rendered electric by heat. 

Transmutation. A favourite term among the Alche- 
mists, signifying the changing of one metal to ano- 
ther, which they supposed possible. 

Trituration. A chemical operation whereby substances 
are united by friction. Amalgams are made by 
this method. 

Tubulated. Retorts which have a hole at the top for 
inserting the materials to be operated upon, with- 



210 GLOSSARY 

taking them out of the sand heat, are called 
tubulated retorts. 

lag, (vulgarly called tooth and egg 1 metal.) An 
Indian name for zinc. Chinese copper is also 
called by this name, which is a compound of cop- 
per, tin, and arsenic, much resembling silver in 
colour. 

V. 

Vacuum. A space unoccupied by matter. The term 
is generally applied to the exhaustion of atmos- 
pheric air, by chemical or philosophical means. 

Vapour. This term is used by chemists to denote such 
exhalations only as can be condensed and rendered 
liquid again at the ordinary atmospheric tempera- 
ture, in opposition to those which are permanently 
elastic. 

rats. Large chemical vessels, generally of wood, for 
making* infusions, &c. 

Vital air. Oxygen gas. 

Vitrification, When solid substances have undergone 
very intense heat, so as to be fused thereby, they 
frequently have an appearance resembling glass. 
They are then said to be vitrifiejl, or to have un- 
dergone vitrification. 

Vitriols. A class of substances, either earthy or metal 
lie, which are combined with the vitriolic* acid- 
Thus there is vitriol of lime, vitriol of iron, of cop- 
per, &.c. These salts are now called Sulphal 
because the acid which forms them is called sul- 
phuric acid. 

Vilriolated Tartar. The old name for sulphate of pot- 
ash. 

Volatile alkali. Another name for ammonia. 

Volatile salts. The commercial name for carbonate of 
ammonia. 

Volatility. A property of some bodies, which disposes 
them to assume the gaseous state. This property 
us to be owing to their affinity for caloric. 

Volume. A term made use of by modern chemists to 



GLOSSARY. 211 

express the space occupied by gaseous or other 
bodies. 

Union, chemical. When a mere mixture of two or more 
substances is made, they are said to be mechani- 
cally united; but when each or either substance 
forms a component part of the product, the sub- 
stances have formed a chemical union. 
W. 

Wadd. The name gixen by miners to plumbago or 
carburet of iron, known in common by the very 
improper name of black lead. 

Water. The most common of all fluids, composed of 
88 9-10 parts of oxygen and 11 1-10 of hydrogen. 
mineral. Waters which are impregnated with 



mineral and other substances, are known by this 
appellation. These minerals are generally held 
in solution by carbonic, sulphuric, or muriatic acid. 

Way, dry. A term used by chemical writers when 
treating of analysis or decomposition. By decom- 
posing in the dry- way, is meant by the agency of 
fire. 
— humid. A term used in the same manner as the 
foregoing, but expressive of decomposition in a 
fluid state, or by means of water, and chemical re- 
agents, or tests. 

Welding heat. That degree of heat in which two 
pieces of iron, or other metal, may be united by 
hammering. 

Worm tab. A chemical vessel with a pewter worm 
fixed in the inside, and the intermediate space fill- 
ea with water. Its use is to cool liquors during 
distillation. See Refrigeratory. 
Z. 

Zaffre. An oxide of cobalt, mixed with a portion of 
siliceous matter. It is imported in tjhis sjate from 
Saxony. 

Zero. The point from which the scale of a thermome- 
ter is graduated. The thermometer of Fahrenheit 
has its zero at that point at which it stands when 
immersed in a mixture of snow and common salt. 



LlBRARy 




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